PRACTICAL  GUIDE 

FOR  THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


BY 

A.  PROTEAUX, 

CIVIL  ENGINEER, 

GRADUATE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES,  AND  DIRECTOR  OF  THIERS* 
PAPER-MILL,  PUY-DE-d6mE. 

WITH  ADDITIONS  BY  L.  S.  LE  NORMAND. 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  FRENCH  WITH  NOTES  BY 

HORATIO  PAINE,  A.B.,  M.D. 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  WOOD  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

BY  HENRY  T.  BROWN, 

OF  THE  "AMERICAN  ARTISAN." 


Illiistnt^J^  bg  flatus, 

CONTAINING  DRAWINGS  OF  RAW  MATERIALS,"  MACHINERY,  PLANS  OF  PAPER 
MILLS,  ETC.  ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHER, 
406  WALNUT  STREET. 

1866. 


n 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866,  by 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and 
for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


PKILADELPHIA: 
COLLINS,  PBINTER. 


PREFACE. 


•  The  volume  on  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  and 
Boards,  here  presented  to  the  American  public,  is  be- 
lieved to  be  'the  first  practical  treatise  of  the  kind  pub- 
lished in  this  country.  It  consists  of  a  translation  of  the 
valuable  work  of  Proteaux,  which  appeared  in  Paris 
about  a  year  since,  additions  from  the  "  Nouveau  Man- 
uel" of  Le  Normand,  notes  by  the  translator,  and  a 
paper  by  Henry  T.  Brown,  Esq.,  of  the  "  American 
Artisan."  It  is  hoped  that  it  will  be  found  an  accept- 
able and  important  aid  to  the  American  manufacturer 
of  paper,  and  a  creditable  addition  to  the  industrial  lit- 
erature of  the  United  States. 

Wide-spread  intelligence  and  well-nigh  universal  edu- 
cation, as  they  are  the  glory,  so  have  they  been  found  the 
bulwark  of  this  nation  in  the  hour  of  its  greatest  peril. 
They  will  in  the  future  prove  to  be  the  elements  which 
will  carry  it  up  to  the  highest  stage  of  development 
ever  known  to  any  country,  and  far  beyond  anything 
which  has  ever  been  imagined  by  the  most  enthusiastic 
lover  of  free  institutions.  The  measure  of  the  education 
and  intelligence  of  our  people,  as  compared  with  those 
of  other  countries,  has  only  to  be  looked  for  in  the  con- 

1*  * 


yi  PREFACE. 

sumption  of  paper.  In  this  respect,  it  need  hardly  be 
added,  we  far  surpass  any  other  nation  in  the  world. 

The  paper  question  has  within  a  few  years  past  as- 
sumed much  more  than  ordinary  importance.  A  scarcity 
of  raw  materials,  arising  out  of  a  state  of  war,  a  short 
supply  of  cotton  and  cotton  rags,  and  other  causes,  com- 
bined to  place  this  branch  of  industry  in  a  very  awkward 
and  trying  position.  The  American  paper-makers,  how- 
ever, showed  themselves  quite  equal  to  the  emergency. 
They  availed  themselves  of  and  utilized  nearly  every  raw- 
material  which  could  be  used  for  the  purpose,  and  -kept 
supplied  a  large  and  growing  market,  at  prices  lower 
than  other  commodities  which  were  affected  by  the 
scarcity  of  cotton. 

The  energy,  enterprise,  and  success  thus  manifested 
deserved  all  praise  and  encouragement,  and  yet  received 
but  little.  On  the  contrary,  the  most  determined  efforts 
were  made  to  crush  the  authors  of  the  great  results 
attained,  and  actually  to  discriminate  against  these,  our 
own  people,  who  were  aiding  and  supporting  the  go- 
vernment, and  in  favor  of  those  foreigners,  who,  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  were  either  indifferent  to  us  and  our 
cause,  or  wholly  and  bitterly  hostile  to  us.  Few  more 
selfish  or  indefensible  attempts  at  legislation  have  dis- 
graced our  country  within  the  past  few  years.  Happily, 
these  attempts,  vigorous  and  determined  though  they 
were,  did  not  succeed.  Had  they  done  so,  and  had  the 
American  paper  industry  been  crushed,  those  who  were 
most  active  in  inaugurating  and'  urging  this  movement 


PREFACE. 


vii 


would  have  been  among  the  earliest  and  most  severe 
sufferers  by  it.  It  would  soon  have  been  demonstrated 
to  them,  and  at  heavy  cost,  how  utterly  impossible  it 
would  be  for  this  country  to  rely  upon  Europe  for  any 
considerable  portion  of  its  supplies  of  paper.  The  emer- 
gency has,  however,  passed;  and  in  the  early  future, 
with  the  new  raw  materials,  especially  wood  and  straw, 
and  the  former  quantity  of  rags,  our  own  producers  of 
this  important  aid  to  our  civilization  will  be  found  fully 
capable  cf  supplying  the  enormous  quantity  of  paper 
which  we  shall  require. 

H.  C.  B. 

Philadelphia,  June  15,  1866. 


% 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2013 


http://archive.org/details/practicalguidefoOOprou 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
A  Glance  at  the  History  of  Paper- Making      .      .  .11 

CH  APTERAL 

Raw  Materials  24 

§  1.  Rags  26 

CHAPTER  III. 

Manufacture   29 

§   1.  Sorting  and  cutting   ......  29 

§   2.  Dusting   34 

§   3.  Washing  and  boiling  .       .       .       .       .       .  36 

§   4.  Reduction  to  half-stuff   44 

§   5.  Drainage  ........  41 

§   6.  Bleaching   49 

§   T.  Composition  of  the  pulp     .....  66 

§   8.  Refining  or  beating    ...       .       .  .69 

§   9.  Sizing   11 

§  10.  Coloring  matters       ......  T6 

§  11.  The  work  of  the  paper-machine  ....  96 

§  12.  Finishing   99 

CHAPTER  TV. 

Manufacture  of  Paper  from  the  Yat,  or  by  Hand  .105 
§1.  Manufacture  of  paper  by  hand     .       .       .  .111 

§  2.  Sizing  119 

§  3.  Finishing  ,    .  .125 

§  4.  Manufacture  of  bank-note  paper,  and  watermark 

paper  in  general       .       .       .       .       .  .126 

§5.  Comparison  between  machine  and  hand-made  papers  128 
§  6.  Classification  of  paper  ......  131 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  y. 


Further  Remarks  on  Sizing   133 

§   1.  Of  the  sizing-room   134 

§   2.  Method  of  extracting  gelatine    .       .       .  .136 

§   3.  Operation  of  sizing   144 

§   4.  Drying  after  sizing  ;  the  Dutch  method  preferable 

to  the  French   146 

§   5.  Some  important  observations  upon  sizing    .       .  150 

§   6.  Appendix  upon  sizing   158 

§  7.  Theories  of  sizing   175 

§   8.  Sizing  in  the  pulp    178 

§   9,  M.  Canson's  method  of  sizing  in  the  pulp    .       .  187 

§  10.  Comparison  of  the  two  methods  ....  189 


CHAPTER  YI. 

Different  Substances  Suitable  for  Making  Paper   .  .191 

§  1.  Straw  paper  198 

§  2.  Wood  paper  201 


CHAPTER  YIL 
Chemical  Analysis  of  Materials  employed  in  Paper- 


204 

§   1.  The  waters  

.  206 

§   2.  Alkalimetrical  test 

.  208 

§   3.  Examination  of  limes  .... 

.  211 

§   4.  Chlorometric  tests     .       .  ... 

.  213 

§  5.  Examination  of  manganese 

.  218 

§   6.  Chlorometric  degree  of  samples  of  manganese 

.  219 

§   7.  Antichlorine  ...... 

.  222 

§   8.  Alums  ....... 

.  223 

§   9.  Kaolin  

.  225 

§  10.  Starch  

.  225 

§11.  Coloring  materials  

.  226 

§  12.  Fuel  

.  228 

§13.  Examination  of  papers  .... 

.  230 

§  14.  Materials  of  a  laboratory  .... 

.  238 

CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  YIIT. 

Working  Stock  of  a  Paper- Mill   241 

§   1.  Motive  power   241 

§   2.  Rag  cutters   243 

§  3.  Dusters   245 

§   4.  Washing  apparatus   246 

§   5.  Boiling  apparatus   24T 

§   6.  Washing  and  beating-engines     ....  247 

§  Y.  Apparatus  for  bleaching  and  draining  the  pulp   .  250 

§   8.  Paper-machines   251 

§   9.  Finishing-machines   253 

§  10.  General  working  stock  of  a  paper-mill  .  .  254 
§  11.  General  remarks  upon  the  establishment  of  a 

paper-mill   255 

§  12.  General  remarks  in  reference  to  building     .       .  257 

§  13.  General  considerations   258 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Wood  in  the  United 

States,   263 

CHAPTER  X. 

Manufacture  of  Boards   269 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Manufacture  of  Paper  in  China  and  Japan      .       .  .273 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Plate  1   277 

Plate  II   278 

Plate  III   279 

Plate  lY                                                                   .  280 

Plate  Y   281 

Plate  YI   283 


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PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

A  GLANCE  AT  THE  HISTORY  OF  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  word  paper  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
Ttdnvqog,  papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant,  which,  for  a  long 
while,  served  among  the  ancients  as  a  material  for 
writing. 

The  manufacture  of  papyrus  paper  was  in  high  repute 
among  the  Eomans.  It  was  superseded  about  the  fifth 
century  of  our  era  by  the  cotton  paper  called  carta  bom" 
hycina, 

'  Several  manuscripts  having  an  authentic  date  belong 
to  the  tenth  century,  and  judging  from  the  appearance 
of  the  writing,  others  seem  to  go  back  to  a  period  still 
more  remote.  The  great  libraries  of  Europe,  almost  all 
of  them,  possess  works  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies, written  on  bombycian  paper.^ 

*  See  the  following  works  for  a  description  of  the  processes  of  mak- 
ing papyrus  and  other  kinds  of  paper  among  the  ancients  : — 
Pliny,  lib.  xiii.,  chap.  xi. 
Theophrastus,  lib.  ix.,  chap.  ix. 
Bartholinus,  "  Dissertatione  de  libris  legendis." 
Polydorus  Yirgilius,  "  De  rerum  inventione." 
Le  Pere  Hardouin,  "  De  re  diplomatica." 
Prideaux,  "  Connectione." 
Scaliger. 
Saumaise. 

Comte  de  Caylus,  "  Memoires  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences,"  tome 
xxvi. 

2 


18  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  processes  employed  at  that  time  to  effect  the 
transformation  of  cotton  into  paper  are  not  known ;  but 
it  is  fair  to  suppose  them  analogous  to  those  which  were 
later  employed  in  the  preparation  of  paper  from  rags, 
and  whose  discovery  dates  from  the  second  half  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  opinion  of  most 
men  of  learning  who  have  written  on  this  subject. 

In  1762  M.  Miermann  offered  a  prize  for  the  oldest 
manuscript  written  upon  rag  paper. 

The  different  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  this  com- 
petition, printed  at  the  Hague  in  1767,  unite  in  admit- 
ting that  paper  of  this  kind  was  used  before  the  year 
1300. 

It  is  not  known  to  what  nation  'this  important  discovery 
is  due.  Scaliger  gives  the  credit  to  the  Germans. 
Maffei  to  the  Italians.  We  believe  that  Dr.  Prideaux 
is  nearer  right  in  considering  the  Arabs,  if  not  as  the 
inventors,  at  least  as  the  importers  of  this  manufacture 
into  Europe. 

Some  historians  admit  that  the  crusaders  brought  home 
into  France  this  branch  of  industry,  which  was  soon  to 
be  so  prodigiously  developed,  and  contribute  more  than 
any  other  to  the  progress  of  modern  civilization. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  rag  paper 
was  made  at  the  vat,  or  by'  hand,  through  processes 
which  are  still  in  use  in  France,  in  some  departments, 
as,  for  instance,  Puy-de-D6me. 

The  first  idea  of  making  paper  by  machinery  is  due  to 
France.  In  1798,  Eohert,  a  workman  attached  to  the 
paper-mill  at  Essone,  took  out  the  first  patent  for  manu- 
facturing paper  continuously. 

The  machine,  set  up  in  1799,  was  very  imperfect;  it 
could  not  be  worked.    M.  Lejer  Didot,  proprietor  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER-MAKING. 


19 


paper-mill  at  Essone,  bought  the  patent  from  Eobert, 
introduced  some  improvements  upon  the  original  model, 
and  went  over  to  England  to  have  the  plans  executed. 

After  many  experiments,  and  powerfully  aided  by  the 
mechanical  knowledge  of  Mr.  DonJcin,  employed  in  the 
workshops  of  Mr.  Hall,  he  was  enabled,  in  1803,  at 
Frogmore,  in  Herefordshire,  to  work  the  first  paper-ma- 
chine. 

In  1 804  a  second  machine  was  set  up  at  Two  Waters. 
MM.  Berthe  and  Grevenich  established  the  first  French 
paper-machine  in  their  paper-mill  at  Sorel  (Eure-et-Loir) 
in  1811. 

They  were  the  first  makers  who  introduced  into 
commerce  paper  made  by  machinery  and  sized  in  the 
vat. 

The  labors  of  BerthoUet  having  thrown  great  light 
upon  bleaching  the  stufi*s,  chlorine  soon  began  to  be 
adopted  as  a  discolorant  of  the  pulp. 

In  1827  there  were  as  yet  but  four  paper-machines  in 
France.    In  1833  the  number  exceeded  twelve. 

At  that  time,  however,  the  paper-maehine  was  far  from 
having  received  its  latest  improvements.  The  manufac- 
turers complained  of  the  frequent  obstruction  of  the  wire- 
gauze,  of  too  rapid  destruction  of  the  felts,  &c. 

The  paper  too  retained  upon  what  is  called  the  wrong 
side  the  impression  of  the  wire-gauze.  A  system  of 
cylindrical  presses,  suggested  by  3Ir.  Doiikin,  set  aside 
this  defect. 

M.  Firmin  Didot  at  the  same  time  established  the  first 
drying  presses  at  his  paper-mill  at  Mesnil-sur-l'Estree 
(Euro). 

French  paper-making  then  received  a  new  impetus. 
A  large  number  of  manufacturers  established  cylinders 
and  engines  in  the  place  of  their  mortars  and  mallets. 


20 


PEACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Everywhere  the  vegetable  sizing,  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  alumino-resinous  soap  and  starch,  took  the  place  of 
the  sizing  made  of  gelatine. 

About  1840  M.  de  Bergue  suggested  the  use  of  sand- 
traps,  which,  as  their  name  implies,  receive  the  gravel 
and  other  impurities,  whose  presence  in  paper  would  in- 
jure leaden  type,  woodcuts,  copper  plates,  &c.  M.  Canson, 
of  Annonay,  applied  suction-pumps  to  the  paper-machine, 
which,  during  the  formation  of  the  paper,  carry  off  by 
degrees  a  great  portion  of  the  water  contained  in  the 
pulp  from  under  the  wire-gauze.  The  usefulness  of  this 
improvement  was  so  evident  that  the  suction-pumps  were 
at  once  generally  employed. 

The  introduction  of  kaolin  (porcelain  clay)  into  paper, 
rendered  it  more  fit  to  receive  the  impression  of  type  and 
eugravings.  Kags,  too,  growing  daily  more  expensive, 
this  became  one  means  of  preventing  an  increase  in  the 
price  of  paper. 

As  the  scarcity  of  the  raw  material  began  to  be  felt 
more  and  more,  an  attempt  was  made  to  use  substances 
other  than  rags  for  the  manufacture  of  inferior  papers. 

In  1839  the  paper-mill  at  Echargon  sent  to  the  "Ex- 
position Rationale"  samples  of  paper  made  with  sea- 
wrack,  wood,  etc. 

M.  Cardon  de  Buges  (Loiret)  manufacture^  tarred  paper 
for  packing  out  of  old  ship  ropes. 

These  products,  when  they  first  appeared,  were  very 
much  esteemed  as  wrappers  for  articles  of  hardware  and 
cutlery,  which  they  preserve  from  rust. 

At  the  paper-mill  of  the  Marais,  M.  May  makes  paper 
of  plantain  leaves. 

M.  Heryjoyen  uses  rye  straw  for  common  wrappers. 

An  important  improvement  in  paper-making  was  the 
adaptation  of  washing-drums  to  the  rag-engines,  which 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER-MAKING. 


21 


rid  the  pulp  of  the  traces  of  chlorine  it  might  contain  at 
the  beginning  of  the  refining  process.  The  first  idea  of 
this  invention  belongs  to  M3I.  Breton  freres.  It  was  not 
generally  adopted  until  after  it  had  undergone  the  modi- 
fications due  to  il^.  Blanchet,  of  Rives,  who  made  the 
washing-drum  what  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

In  1844  the  machine-made'  papers  thrown  into  the 
market  were  extremely  white,  but  unfortunately  inferior 
in  tenacity  to  those  made  by  hand. 

The  employment  of  chlorine  in  excessive  quantities 
injuriously  affected  the  resisting  power  of  the  fibres.  In 
many  mills  the  washing  of  the  pulp  was  imperfect ;  some 
kinds  of  paper  contained  free  chlorine.  From  all  this 
there  resulted  a  depreciation  in  French  paper,  which  it 
was  important  to  remedy. 

So  after  the  abuse  of  chlorine  as  a  gas,  liquid  chlorine 
(a  solution  of  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  in  water)  returned 
into  use,  and  is  more  easily  manipulated  by  manufac- 
turers unfamiliar  with  chemical  preparations. 

In  1849  paper-making,  enlightened  by  the  errors  com- 
mitted from  1834  to  1845,  began  to  advance  more 
steadily.  The  composition  of  the  pulps  was  better 
studied.  The  common  printing  and  writing  papers  were 
made  of  a  mixture  of  gray  linen  rags  and  cotton  formerly 
only  employed  in  preparing  coarser  kinds.  From  that 
time  white  rags  were  kept  for  fine  papers  of  a  superior 
quality,  whose  sale  became  considerably  greater. 

The  World's  Fair  at  London,  in  1851,  afi'orded  an 
opportunity  of  appreciating  the  development  of  paper- 
making  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

We  quote  the  following  statistics  from  the  report  of 
the  commission: — 


22 


PEACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER  MAKING. 


Paper-machines. 

Vats. 

Cylinders. 

France 

.  210 

250 

England  . 

.  322 

266 

1616 

Scotland  . 

.  68 

Id 

286 

Ireland 

.  33 

■  15 

86 

Zolverein  . 

.    140  , 

1024  * 

800 

Which  is  subdivided  thus 

Prussia 
Bavaria 
Saxony 

Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse 
Electorate       "  " 
Duchy  of  Baden 
Nassau  ... 

The  statistics  for  Wirtemburg,  Brunswick,  and  several 
other  States,  are  wanting. 


Machines. 

Vats. 

503 

.  11 

25t 

.  6 

68 

.      I  • 

27 

.  6 

39 

.  14 

S3 

.  6 

30 

OTHER  EUROPEAN  STATES. 


Machines. 

Austria      .       .  . 

.  48 

900  vats. 

Denmark  .... 

.  6 

20 

Sweden  .... 

.  t 

8  " 

Belgium     .       .       .  . 

.  28 

80  paper-mills. 

Low  Countries  . 

168           "  • 

Lombardo-Venetian  Kingdom 

.  6 

Kingdom  of  Two  Sicilies  . 

.  12 

12  vats. 

Boman  States 

.  3 

Kingdom  of  Sardinia  . 

.  12 

50  vats. 

Tuscany  .... 

.  2 

Spain  .... 

.  IT 

250  vats. 

Switzerland 

.  26 

40  " 

Turkey      .       .       .  ^  . 

.  1 

Russia  .... 

.  25 

In  1860  the  number  of  paper-mills  in  24  States  of 
the  United  States  was  555,  producing  annually  113,294 
tons  of  paper  and  boards,  of  the  value  of  $17,148,194. 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER-MAKING. 


23 


Estimating  the  daily  product  of  each  machine  at  610 
kilogrammes  (1,344.88  pounds  avoirdupois),  and  of  a  vat 
at  50  kilogrammes  (110.23),  we  should  have  the  follow- 
ing yearly  product  for  these  different  countries : — 


England 

,    62,900,000  kilog.  (61,968.8578  tons  of  paper.) 

Scotland 

.  14,300,000 

(14,074.8839  " 

Ireland  . 

.     3,309,000  " 

(3,256.9062  " 

Trance  . 

.    41,608,000  " 

(40,666.4888  " 

Zolverein 

.    37,300,000  " 

(31,506.8165  " 

Austria 

.    22,320,000  " 

(21,968.6290  " 

Denmark 

.     1,600,000  " 

(1,574.8120 

Spain  . 

.     5,330,000  " 

(5,246.0924    "  " 

Since  1851  paper-making  in  France  has  increased,  but 
the  improvements,  notwithstanding  the  great  number  of 
patents  obtained,  are  unimportant.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  substitute 
large  machines  for  small  ones,  which  produce  from  2600 
to  3000  kilogrammes  (1.5774  to  2.9527  tons)  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  machinery  has  been  more  carefully 
studied;  the  number  of  wet  presses  and  drying  cylinders 
increased ;  and  printing  paper  has  been  made  by  mixing 
with  the  rag-pulp  a  considerable  proportion  of  wood,  straw, 
and  particularly  esparto  (broom),  which  is  very  generally 
used  in  England  for  news  and  common  printing  papers. 

The  most  elegant  English  papers  are  sized  with  gela- 
tine, which  gives  them  a  greater  sonority  and  strength 
than  could  be  imparted  by  vegetable  or  resinous  sizing. 

The  first  French  paper-machine  furnished  with  the 
necessary  apparatus  for  using  this  kind  of  size,  was  put 
up  about  1857  by  M.  Outhenin  Chalandre,  at  the  paper- 
mill  of  Savoyeux  (Haute-Saone).  As  the  employment  of 
animal  sizing  allows  a  very  large  proportion  of  cotton  to 
be  used  in  the  paper,  a  considerable  profit  accrues  to  the 
manufacturer,  which  greatly  compensates  for  the  original 
outlay  required  by  this  system  of  sizing. 


24  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

RAW  MATERIALS. 

The  raw  materials  used  in  a  paper  mill  are  numerous  ; 
they  may  be  classified  as  follows : — 

1.  Rags. 

2.  Products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  taking  the  place 
of  rags,  entirely  or  in  part ;  the  most  important  are: — 

Esparto  (Spanish  broom). 
•  Acacia. 
Aloes. 

Juto.  • 
Wood. 

Straws  of  cereal  and  leguminous  plants.- 

Oats. 

Hops. 

Ferns,  &c.  &c. 

3.  Materials  required  in  boiling : — 

Unslacked  lime. 

Soda  (carbonate,  NaO  C02)  at  80°  (alcalimeter). 
Crystals  of  soda  at  30°. 
Salts  of  potassa. 

4.  Materials  required  in  bleaching : — 

Hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid. 

Sulphuric  acid. 

Manganese  (peroxide,  MnOg). 

Chloride  of  lime  (hypochlorite  of  lime,  CaO,C10 

+  CaCl). 
Common  salt. 

Antichlorine  (sulphites  of  soda,  NaO,  SO2). 


RAW  MATERIALS.  25 

5.  Materials  required  for  sizing : — 

E-esin. 

Carbonate  of  soda. 
Starch  (fecula). 
Alum. 
Gelatine. 

Sulphate  of  zinc  (white  vitriol). 

6.  Mineral  substances : — 

Kaolin  (porcelain  clay). 

Sulphate  of  lime  (plaster  of  Paris). 

Sulphate  of  baryta. 

Chalk. 

Clays. 

7.  Coloring  materials,  or  substances  used  to  produce 
them ;  the  principal  ones  are : — 

Ultramarine  (called  bleu  guimet). 
Cochineal. 
Brazil  wood. 
Nftrate  of  lead. 

Acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead). 

Chromate  of  potassa. 

Sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol). 

Prussiate  of  potassa  (ferrocyanide  of  potassium). 

Salt  of  tin  (protochloride  of  tin). 

Safiiower  (Spanish  red). 

Logwood  (Campeachy  wood). 

Lampblack. 

Nutgalls. 

Ochre. 

We  will  examine  the  first  group  of  this  classification 
more  particularly  in  the  next  chapter.  The  others  will 
be  taken  up  in  connection  with  the  processes  which  they 
characterize. 


26 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  importance  which  the  second  group  is  daily 
assuming,  obliges  us  to  enter  into  some  details,  and, 
therefore,  we  will  not  touch  upon  the  subject  until  we 
have  completely  studied  the  actual  manufacture  of  rag 
paper,  where  the  aggregate  of  the  processes  employed 
constitutes  the  type  of  all  paper-making. 

§  1.  Rags. 

The  rags  most  employed  in  a  paper-mill  are  of 
hempen,  linen,  or  cotton  thread.  Woollen  rags  are  not 
made  use  of  except  for  common  wrappers.  Besides  this 
they  are  now  sold  to  the  woollen  factories  to  be  un- 
ravelled and  worked  over. 

The  rags  arrive  at  the  mill  in  bales  weighing  from 
200  to  500  kilog.  (440.94  to  1102.36  lbs.  avoir.)  either 
unpicked  or  having  undergone  a  first  sorting.  In  that 
case  they  bear  the  following  denominations : — 

1.  Fine  whites  (of  thread). 

2.  Common  white.  * 

3.  White  cottons. 

4.  Colored  cottons. 

5.  Gray  rags  and  packcloths. 

As  the  commercial  value  of  these  various  kinds  is 
very  different,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  a 
manufacturer  to  assure  himself  that  each  delivery  really 
contains  the  rags  intended. 

In  case  no  preparatory  sorting  has  been  made,  in  order 
to  settle  the  price,  the  relative  proportion  of  each  kind 
must  be  ascertained.  To  discover  this,  it  is  necessary 
to  examine  the  interior  of  the  bales,  which  are  frequently 
found  made  up  of  inferior  qualities. 

In  Germany,  they  are  satisfied  with  three  classes : — 


RAW  MATERIALS. 


27 


1.  Whites. 

2.  Half  whites. 

3.  Colored  rags  and  packcloths. 

In  Belgium,  on  the  contrary,  the  great  rag  dealers 
find  it  an  advantage  to  have  a  precise  classification,  which 
allows  them  to  fix  a  more  exact  price  for  each  kind. 

Some  of  them  adopt  as  many  as  seventeen  numbers : — 

1.  White  linen. 

2.  Brown  Holland. 

3.  Gray,  brown,  or  blue  linen. 

4.  White  cotton. 

5.  Colored  cotton. 

6.  House-cloths. 

7.  Coff'ee-bags. 

8.  Flax-wastings,  1st  quality. 

9.  "  2d 

10.  Ropes  and  packcloths  containing  straw. 

11.  "       "         "       2d  quality. 

12.  Hempen  ropes. 
13..  Aloes  ropes. 

14.  Small  grays. 

15.  White  parings. 

16.  Half  white  parings. 

17.  Gray  parings  and  old  paper. 

We  should  like  to  see  this  method  adopted,  as  it 
would  facilitate  business  and  put  an  end  to  the  intermi- 
nable discussions  between  paper  manufacturers  and  rag 
dealers.  This  is  not  a  time  when  industry  thrives  by 
sharp  practice ;  on  the  contrary,  it  can  only  live  by  free 
competition. 

To  increase  the  weight  of  their  rags,  some  dealers  wet 
them.  M.  Piette,  formerly  a  paper  manufacturer,  tells 
tis  that  he  has  seen  ragmen  take  their  wares  to  the  bank 
of  a  stream,  spread  them  out  in  layers,  sprinkle  them 


28  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


successively  with  water  and  fine  sand,  and  then  shove 
the  whole  into  a  bag. 

We  mention  this  fact,  which  we  desire  to  believe  is  of 
very  rare  occurrence,  in  order  to  show  how  far  a  want 
of  good  faith  may  be  carried. 

Rags  always  contain  a  certain  amount  of  natural 
moisture,  varying  according  to  the  fineness  of  the  tex- 
ture ;  but  the  proportion  should  never  exceed  7  or  8  per 
cent,  for  the  common  and  coarser  kinds.  One  needs 
only  a  certain  amount  of  practice,  to  recognize  by  the 
feel  whether  they  are  in  their  natural  condition  of  mois- 
ture. It  is  well,  however,  and  important  for  counter- 
registering,  to  make  sure  by  actual  weighing  of  the 
number  of  pounds  of  water  contained  in  a  given  quan- 
tity of  rags,  at  the  time  of  their  arrival  at  the  mill. 

The  quality  of  rags  varies  very  much  according  to  the 
source  from  which  they  are  obtained.  Those  collected 
from  great  centres  of  population  are  fine  and  white,  but 
not  strong.  The  use  of  concentrated  lyes  in  bleaching 
the  clothes  has  considerably  injured  the  resisting  power 
of  the  fibres.  They  are,  so  to  speak,  burnt,  tear  easily 
between  the  fingers,  and  sufi'er  a  considerable  waste 
during  their  transformation  into  paper. 

Country  rags,  on  the  other  hand,  are  coarse,  of  a  grayer 
appearance,  but  strong,  and  containing  many  mending 
pieces  nearly  new.  As  we  shall  see  later,  these  kinds 
are  very  valuable  to  give  body  to  the  paper. 

If  the  rags  are  moist,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  dry 
them  before  heaping,  otherwise  heat  would  be  generated 
and  in  consequence  fermentation  occasioned  which  would 
be  injurious  to  the  toughness  of  the  fibres  and  produce  a 
still  greater  loss  in  the  manufacture. 

The  value  of  rags  is  proportional  to  the  toughness, 
whiteness,"  cleanness,  and  to  the  character  and  degree  of 
fineness  of  the  texture. 


MANUFACTURE. 


29 


CHAPTEE  III. 

MANUFACTURE. 

The  work  of  a  paper-mill  in  effecting  the  transforma- 
tion of  rags  into  paper,  is  divided  as  follows : — 

1.  Sorting  and  cutting. 

2.  Dusting. 

3.  Washing  and,  boiling. 
4'.  Eeducing  to  half  stuff. 

5.  Draining.  .  . 

6.  Bleaching. 

7.  Composition  of  the  pulp. 

8.  Eefining,  beating. 

9.  Sizing. 

10.  Coloring. 

11.  Conversion  into  paper. 

12.  Fi];iishing. 

We  will  examine  in  detail  each  one  of  these  opera- 
tions successively. 

§  1.  Sorting  and  Cutting. 

The  rags  are  not  sorted  in  all  mills  before  being  cut. 
Upon  their  arrival,  they  are  weighed,  unpacked,  heaped, 
and  delivered  every  day,  to  the  cutters  in  bags  contain- 
ing 100  kilog.  (220.47  lbs.  avoird.). 

Sorting  is  almost  useless  if  the  rags  arrive  at  the 
mill  already  picked ;  but,  as  it  very  often  happens  that 
whites,  cottons,  and  grays  a,re  all  mixed  together,  it  seems 


30  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

to  US  absolutely  necessary  that  they  should  be  divided 
into  classes  the  better  to  appreciate  the  contents  of  the 
delivery,  and  to  give  the  choicest  rags  to  the  best  cutters. 

If  the  price  by  the  cwt.  is  fixed  in  advance,  we  avoid 
the  complaints  of  the  working  women,  and  any  parti- 
ality which  might  be  shown  by  giving  to  some  of  them 
sacks  requiring  less  work. 

Such  a  division  also  allows  us  to  surround  the  woman 
with  fewer  cases  for  the  separation  of  the  different  sorts. 

The  dimensions  of  the  cut  rags  ought  to*'vary  from 
3  to  5  inches  upon  each  side.  The  tougher  kinds  should 
be  shorter,  those  worn  and  soft  longer,  say  from  4  to  5 
inches.  * 

It  is  essential  that  the  rags  should  be  cut  in  the 
direction  either  of  the  warp  or  the  woof;  if  cut  obliquely 
or  bias,  they  will  unravel  and  produce  a  considerable 
waste. 

Before  cutting,  which  is  done  by  means  of  a  fixed 
knife,  inclined  at  an  angle  to  the  floor  in  front  of  each 
work-woman,  she  should  wash  the  soiled  parts  and  care- 
fully pick  out  buttons,  hooks  and  eyes,  pins,  &c.  She 
begins  by  ridding  the  piece  of  seams  and  hems,  then 
cuts  it  into  bands  of  from  two  to  four  inches  wide,  which 
she  afterwards  recuts  crossways  in  bunches  differing  in 
thickness  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rags,  the  sharp- 
ness of  the  knife,  and  the  strength  of  the  woman. 
•  She  distributes  the  pieces  among  the  boxes  around  her, 
according  to  their  number,  which  she  ought  to  be  able  to 
decide  without  much  hesitation. 

We  recommend  the  adoption  of  the  following  classifi- 
cation, and  even  that  the  principal  headings  should  be 
subdivided  into  first  and  second  qualities,  which  would 
carry  the  numbers  we  may  find  it  useful  to  employ  for 


MANUFACTURE. 


31 


the  sorting  of  the  rags,  before  using  them  in  the  mill,  as 
high  as  seventy  or  eighty. 

Classification  of  Cut  Rags, 

THREAD,  HEMP,  AND  FLAXEN  RAGS. 

1.  Fine  whites. 

2.  Fine  whites,  half  worn,  clean. 

3.  Whites,  half  fine. 

4.  Coarse  whites. 

5.  Fine  whites,  soiled. 

6.  Whites,  half  fine,  soiled. 

7.  Seams  and  hems,  clean,  fine,  half  fine. 

8.  "  "       soiled,  coarse. 

9.  Ticking. 

10.  Drilling. 

11.  Thirds,  new  and  clean. 

12.  "  worn. 

13.  "     containing  some  hemp. 

14.  "  coarse. 

1 5.  "     con taining  a  large  proportion  of  hemp. 

16.  White  cord,  twine. 

17.  Kope  containing  straw. 
•  18.  Tarred  ropes. 

19.  Hemp  wastings,  oakum. 

20.  Leavings  of  rope-walks. 

COTTON  RAGS. 

21.  New  whites,  clean.  . 

22.  Half  worn  whites,  clean. 

23.  Soiled  whites. 

24.  Scorched  whites. 

25.  Seams  and  hems. 

26.  White  muslins. 


32  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

27.  Embroidered  muslins. 

28.  Knit  stockings. 

29.  Unbleached  cotton  checks. 

30.  "  light  colored. 

31.  "  dark  " 

32.  "  blue  " 

33.  "  pink. 

34.  Cord  and  fringes. 

35.  Wasting  from  cotton  mills. 

36.  "        "    the  duster. 

WHOLE  OR  MIXED  WOOLLEN  RAGS. 

37.  Yarn  and  wool. 

38.  White  woollen. 

39.  Colored  " 

SILKS. 

40.  Silk. 

41.  Velvet. 

PAPERS. 

42.  Clean  white  papers. 

43.  "    colored  " 

44.  Soiled  papers. 

45.  Pasteboard  parings,  etc.  etc. 

Starting  with  this  classification  at  the  outset,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  we  shall  not  always  have  all  the  sorts  enume- 
rated. The  mill  only  using  cottons  and  thirds  or  white 
rags  exclusively,  will  adopt  a  nomenclature  correspond- 
ing to  its  appointments. 

What  we  have  desired  to  give  is  a  general  table  of  the 
difi*erent  kinds  of  rags,  which  may  be  met  with  in  a 
large  paper-mill,  working  several  machines,  or  using  all 
the  rags  collected  within  a  certain  radius.' 


MANUFACTURE. 


33 


Many  manufacturers  reduce  enormously  the  operation 
of  cutting,  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  very  expensive  one. 
This  is  a  false  principle. .  Careful  cutting  results  in  great 
purity  of  the  pulp,  economy  in  the  use  of  chemical  mate- 
.  rials  employed  in  boiling  and  bleaching,  less  wear  to  the 
blades  of  the  cylinders  and  plates,  less  waste  in  the  pro- 
cess of  opening  the  threads,  and  finally  the  various 
manipulations  of  the  pulp  before  its  transformation  into 
paper  will  be  easier  and  surer. 

When  one  of  the  cases  is  full,  the  work-woman  takes 
its  contents  to  the  reviewing  table,  made  of  a  metallic 
cloth  of  iron  wire,  and  examines  the  rags  to  see  whether 
they  air  belong  to  the  same  number. 

The  superintendent  of  the  cutting-room  (called  in 
France  mistress  or  picker  of  the  rags)  should  attentively 
examine  this  last  operation,  and  address  comments  to 
the  women  upon  the  style  in  which  each  has  done  her 
work. 

Another  plan  is  to  havB  all  the  women  bring  the  same 
number  to  the  reviewing  table  at  once,  so  as  only  to 
make  one  lot,  which  is  then  taken  to  the  store-room  for 
cut  rags. 

It  seems  well  to  employ  this  method  for  the  rarer 
numbers.  For  the  common  sorts  this  is  a  bad  plan.  It 
hurries  the  women,  and  prevents  them  from  making  a 
thorough  review  and  ascertaining  if  they  may  not  have 
allowed  some  buttons,  hooks,  &c.,  to  escape  their  atten- 
tion. 

Before  being  carried  to  the  store-room  the  rags  should 
be  weighed,  and  the  result  entered  upon  the  foreman's 
list  for  the  day. 

This  is  the  only  way  to  ascertain  correctly  the  waste 
caused  by  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  moisture,  or  im- 
purities of  every  description  in  the  rags,  or  by  threads 
3 


34  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


detached  in  cutting  and  found  afterwards  among  the 
sweepings. 

To  diminish  .  the  expense  of  manual  labor,  or  when 
working  women  are  scarce,  special  machines  are  used 
called  rag-cutters.  Their  work,  however,  is  always  de- 
fective, and  should  not  be  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  fine  paper. 

It  would  be  better  to  have  the  buttons,  hooks,  seams, 
and  hems  taken  off  by  the  women  who  cut  the  rags  into 
bands  of  two  to  four  inches  broad,  and  to  employ  men 
to  recut  them  transversely;  their  greater  muscular 
strength  allowing  them  to  cut  through  large  bunches  at 
one  stroke. 

Cutting  machines  are  of  the  greatest  use  in  severing 
large  ropes.  When  this  material  is  present  only  by 
accident,  or  in  limited  quantities,  this  work  is  done  with 
the  axe. 

We  shall  return  to  the  subject  of  the  cutting  machines 
when  treating  of  the  working  stock  of  a  paper-mill. 

The  operation  of  cutting  by  hand,  we  cannot  too  often 
repeat,  is  indispensable  for  a  mill  making  fine  papers. 
This  work  requires  a  special  and  constant  superinten- 
dence, both  by  the  foreman  and  the  director  of  the  mill, 
if  he  wishes  to  preserve  the  superiority  of  his  paper. 

§  2.  Dusting. 

The  operation  of  dusting  consists  in  passing  the  cut 
rags  through  a  cylindrical  or  conical  drum  having  a 
rotary  movement,  the  covering  being  of  wire  cloth,  the 
threads  of  which  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  apart. 
The  rags  enter  at  one  end,  and  are  dragged  out  at  the 
other,  either  by  spokes  arranged  spirally  upon  the  axle, 


MANUFACTURE. 


35 


or  by  iron  points  about  six  inches  in  length  placed  also 
spirally  on  in  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum. 

By  this  double  motion  of  rotation  and  transmission, 
the  rags  are  dusted  as  though  with  a  brush,  and  the  im- 
purities escape  between  the  wires  of  the  cage. 

Dusting  is  commonly  not  performed  until  just  as  the 
rags  are  about  to  be  used,  that  is  to  say,  before  boiling. 
It  would  be  a  good  plan,  kowever,  to  pass  them  through 
the  machine  before  depositing  them  in  the  store-room. 

When  the  rags  are  very  impure  and  coarse,  or  full  of 
straw  or  hemp,  such  as  pack-cloths  and  ropes,  a  more 
powerful  dusting  machine  is  used  called  a  devil.  The 
principle  of  its  movements  is  the  same  as  the  former,  only 
the  friction  is  more  energetic.  There  is,  as  it  were,  a 
disintegration  of  the  fibres  which  renders  them  more 
susceptible  to  the  action  of  the  lye. 

The  waste  occasioned  by  the  dusting  machine  varies 
with  the  fineness  and  pureness  of  the  rags.  We  should 
also  add  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  cutting 
has  been  done.  The  use  of  badly  sharpened  knives  tears 
the  rags  instead  of  cutting  them  clearly.  This  results 
in  a  loss  from  ravelling,  which  it  is  important  to  avoid. 

The  mean  waste  is : — 

1.5  per  cent,  for  clean  white  rags  ; 
2.5  to  3.6  "  "  hems  and  seams  ; 
4  to  5  "    rags  containing  straw. 

The  waste  of  rags  from  cutting,  overhauling,  dusting, 
and  the  moisture  they  contain,  may  be  estimated  as 
follows :— 


36  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Whites,  fine  and  half  fine        .       .       .       .    6  to   9  per  cent. 

"      coarse  10  "  15  " 

Cottons,  white         .       .       .       .       ..       .    6       10  " 

colored   10  "  13  "  " 

Pack-cloths,  and  coarse  threads  containing  straw  15    "  20  "  " 

Ropes  not  of  hemp   16    "  18  "  " 

Hempen  ropes  containing  much  straw       .       .18       22  ** 

All  things  equal,  it  is  very  evident  that  old  rags  pro- 
duce more,  waste  than  new  and  unbleached  ones. 


§  3.  Washing  and  Boiling. 

In  some  paper-mills,  the  rags  are  washed  with  water 
before  going  to  the  boiling  apparatus.  By  this  washing 
they  are  cleansed  from  a  part  of  the  dirt,  and  nearly  all 
the  gravel  which  may  have  escaped  the  duster. 

For  this  purpose  a  washing  drum  is  used,  similar  to 
the  duster,  immersed  in  water,  or,  still  better,  a  large 
wooden  cylinder  furnished  with  18  or  20  blades  or 
paddles  also  of  wood. 

The  water  coming  in  at  the  lower  part  of  the  tub 
with  considerable  velocity,  keeps  the  whole  mass  of  liquid 
in  agitation,  so  as  to  hold  the  rags  constantly  suspended 
in  it,  and  takes  the  place  of  stirring  by  hand.  The 
water  charged  with  impurities  runs  off  above  through 
a  strainer  of  wire  gauze,  preventing  the  passage  of  fibres 
which  otherwise  the  current  of  water  might  carry  off. 

This  simple  and  cheap  operation  very  much  facilitates 
the  boiling,  and  also  economizes  part  of  the  alkaline  sub- 
stances employed. 

The  object  of  boiling  is  not  merely  to  cleanse  the  rags 
of  any  fatty  matter  they  might  contain,  but  also  to 
decompose  a  particular  substance,  which  may  be  called 
vegetable  gluten,  and  which  renders  the  fibres  too  stiff 
to  be  readily  made  into  paper. 


MANUFACTURE. 


37 


Formerly,  boiling  was  done  over  a  naked  fire  in 
stationary  caldrons,  but  this  method  has  been  abandoned 
since  the  invention  of  steam  rotating  boilers.  » 

This  apparatus  consists  in  a  kind  of  caldron  either 
spherical  or  cylindrical,  and  has  a  continuous  rotatory 
motion  imparted  to  it  by  a  pinion  or  band-wheel.  It 
may  contain,  according  to  its  size,  from  a  ton  to  a  ton 
and  a. half  of  rags.  These  are  introduced  through  a 
manhole,  which  is  then  hermetically  sealed. 

The  alkaline  matters  employed  are  lime  and  soda; 
more  rarely  potash,  the  price  of  which  is  higher,  at  least 
.in  France.  The  action  of  these  last  two  being  exactly 
the  same,  the  choice  depends  entirely  upon  their  com- 
mercial value. 

The  amount  of  alkali  contained  in  the  sodas  and 
potashes  of  commerce  is  very  variable,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  manufacturer  should  determine  the  quality 
of  these  materials  at  each  delivery. 

Lime  should  be  bought  in  tjie  stone,  as  the  powder 
absorbs  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  in  consequence  is  entirely  inert  in  the  process  of 
boiling. 

Some  manufacturers  make  their  own  lime  in  a  kiln 
of  several  bushels  in  capacity,  and  ^his  example  should 
be  followed  in  localities  where  this  material  is  badly 
prepared. 

The  quantity  of  the  alkali  necessary  for  a  thorough 
boiling  depends  upon  the  cleanliness  and  nature  of  the 
rags,  and  upon  the  alkalimetrical  degree  of  the  agent 
employed. 

Lime,  as  being  the  cheapest  material,  is  generally  used 
by  the  manufacturers,  though  a  few  prefer  soda,  while 
others  make  a  mixture  of  both. 

In  mills  which  still  make  use  of  the  stationary  boiler, 


*^ 

38  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

we  advise  the  employment  of  soda,  which,  combining 
with  the  fatty  substances,  produces  a  soluble  compound 
easilf  carried  off  by  washing,  whereas  lime  forms  an 
insoluble  calcareous  soap,  which  cakes  upon  the  rags. 

With  the  rotating  apparatus,  as  the  materials  are  kept 
constantly  agitated,  boiling  with  lime  is  almost  as  effec- 
tive as  if  soda  were  used  altogether  or  in  part. 

If  a  mixture  is  made  of  soda  and  lime,  M.  Planche^ 
recommends  the  following  preparation : — 

To  500  parts  of  moderately  soiled  rags,  using  carbo- 
nate of  soda  at  80°  (Fr.  alkalimeter)  take  6  parts  of 
soda  and  3  parts  of  unslacked  lime.  Dissolve  the  lime 
by  sprinkling  it  with  a  little  water  and  then  mix  with 
the  soda.  Boil  the  whole  three  or  four  hours  in  60,  or, 
still  better,  100  parts  of  water. 

By  boiling  there  is  formed  a  precipitate  of  the  carbo- 
nate -of  lime,  and  the  carbonate  of  soda  becomes  caustic 
soda,  which  increases  its  action  on  the  matter  contained 
in  the  rags.  • 

Too  weak  a  lye  leaves  behind  a  part  of  the  substances 
it  is  proposed  to  eliminate;  if  too  strong,  it  injures  the 
tenacity  of  the  fibres  and  the  eventual  waste  is  greater. 
It  is  better,  however,  to  have  it  too  strong  than  too 
weak.  ^ 

There  are  two  schools  among  manufacturers,  in  regard 
to  the  method  of  boiling.  One  prefers  a  low  pressure 
of  steam  and  a  long  duration  of  the  process;  the  other 
admits  that  a  high  pressure  and  rapidity  of  operation 
offer  great  advantages. 

We,  ourselves,  think  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that  steam  at  a  high  pressure  will  allow  the  amount  of 
alkali  employed  to  be  diminished.    Indeed,  the  organic 


^  '*De  I'Industrie  du  papier." 


MANUFACTURE. 


39 


matters  contained  in  rags  are  decomposed  the  more 
readily  as  the  temperature  is  raised;  now  every  one 
knows  that  the  temperature  of  steam  increases  with  the 
pressure. 


Centigrade.  Fahrenheit. 

'  1  atmosphere    "     .       .       100*^     .  .  212° 

2  "...       1210     .  ,  249.8^ 

3  "...       1350     .  T  2*750 

4  "        .       .       .       1450     .  .  2930 

5  "...       1530     .  .  3OT.40 


We  ought  to  add  that  for  coarse  and  hard  rags,  it  is 
well  to  use  a  high  pressure  and  to  continue  the  boiling 
for  a  long  time;  for  clean  and  fine  rags,  a  moderate 
pressure  does  less  harm  to  the  fibres. 

A  good  plan  for  coarse  and  dirty  rags  is  to  boil  them 
a  second  time.  At  first  only  half  the  lye  is  poured  in, 
then  at  the  end  of  six  hours,  and  after  a  thorough  wash- 
ing, which  carries  off  the  greater  part  of  the  coloring 
matter,  the  other  half  of  the  soda  or  lime  is  added. 

The  rags  thus  prepared  are  softer  and  cleaner  after 
the  boiling  is  completed ;  their  disintegration  is  more 
rapid  and  the  bleaching  easier. 

The  proportion  of  alkali  required  in  boiling  100  parts 
of  rags  varies  from  0.6  part  to  5  and  6  parts  of  soda 
and  from  2  to  10  and  12  parts  of  unslacked  lime. 

The  quantity  of  lime  varies  according  to  its  composi- 
tion, and  for  the  soda,  its  alkaline  value  deterniines  the 
quantity  to  be  employed  for  each  kind  of  rag. 

Any  excess  of  alkali  may  be  recognized  if  after  the 
boiling  litmus  paper  reddened  by  an  acid  is  turned  blue. 

In  former  times  rotting  took  the  place  of  the  boiling 
process.  The  rags,  wet  and  heaped  together,  were 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  interval, 
during  which  a  fermentation  was  set  up  which  was  mani- 


40  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

fested  by  the  increased  temperature  of  the  mass  and  the 
development  of  a  cryptogamic  vegetation.  The  rags 
assumed  a  peculiar  color,  reminding  one  of  the  dregs  of 
wine. 

This  method,  unprofitable  in  every  light,  occasioned 
great  waste,  and  could  only  be  employed  where  paper 
was  made  by  hand,  and  the  daily  consumption  small. 

M.  L.  Piette^  has  made  some  experiments  which  allow 
us  to  appreciate  the  superiority  of  the  boiling  process 
over  that  of  rotting  or  fermentation. 

The  experiments  were  conducted  by  the  two  methods 
concurrently  with  a  thousand  kilogrammes  of  rags  each. 


^  Manuel  du  fabricant  de  papier. 


MANUFACTURE. 


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PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


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MANUFACTURE. 


43 


This  table  allows  us  to  draw  the  following  conclu- 
sions : — 

1st.  The  loss  either  from  fermentation  or  from  boiling 
varies  according  to  the  coarseness  of  the  rags. 

2d.  By  boiling  we  may  obtain  twelve  times  as  great  a 
product,  in  the  same  interval*  of  time,  supposing  the 
work  to  be  carried  on  by  day  only,  and  twenty-four  times 
as  great  if  it  is  kept  up  continuously. 

3d.  The  comparative  profit  from  the  use  of  boiling 
instead  of  fermentation  may  amount  to  twenty  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  rags. 

According  to  experiments  made  in  Germany,  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  rotating  boilers  over  those  that  are  sta- 
tionary, would  be  quite  as  great  as  that  of  boiling  itself 
over  fermentation. 

Differential  Results, 

Boiling  at  100°  C.  (212°  Fah.)  at  . the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  it  took: — 

For  100  kilog.  (220.04  lbs.  avoird.)  of  strong  gray  rags 

300    "     (661.42  "      "     )  of  lime. 
12  hours  boiling. 

640- kilog.  (1410.92  lbs.  avoird.)  of  coal. 

Rotating  boilers  at  121°  C.  (251.8°  F.):— 

150  kilog.  (330.69  lbs.)  of  lime.' 

4  hours  boiling. 
400  kilog.  (881.89  lbs.)  of  coal. 

Results. 

Economy  of  lime  50  per  cent. 
"  time  6t  "  " 

fuel  38  "  " 

To  complete  this  experiment  the  boiling  should  have 


44  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


been  done  witli  soda,  lime  being  very  inferior  in  this 
case,  as  we  have  before  had  occasion  to  observe. 

§  4.  Reduction  to  Half  Stuff. 

When  the  boiling  process  is  finished,  the  rags  are 
carried  in  boxes  to  the  rag  engines  to  be  reduced  to  half 
stuff.  These  boxes  are  generally  conveyed  by  means  of 
a  car  running  on  an  iron  track.  They  are  large  enough 
to  require  but  one  or  two  for  each  lot. 

This  engine  may  be  fed  in  two  ways : — 

1st.  The  foreman's  assistants  throw  the  whole  contents 
of  the  boxes  into  the  tank  at  once,  and  when  the  surface 
of  the  water  reaches  the  level  of  the  plate  the  foreman 
pushes  the  rags  with  a  stirrer  until  they  are  caught  by 
the  cylinder.  This  should  be  raised .  a  little,  as  some 
breakage  might  occur  from,  too  great  a  mass  of  rags 
passing  under  the  roller  at  once,  and,  at  any  rate,  the 
jarring  would  tend  to  wear  out  the  machinery  and  gene- 
rally obstruct  the  passage  of  the  rags. 

As  soon  as  the  whole  mass  of  rags  is  suspended  in  the 
water,  which  rises  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  upper 
edge  of  the  tank,  the  workman  lowers  the  cylinder,  and 
the  rags  are  subjected  to  a  rapid  friction,  which  very 
much  facilitates  the  removal  of  dirt  and  other  impurities. 
The  water  at  once  becomes  muddy,  and  covered  with  a 
thick  foam. 

2d.  The  second  plan  requires  that  the  tank  should  be 
two-thirds  filled  with  water.  The  workman  then  takes 
the  rags  by  handfuls,  and  thus  gradually  throws  them 
into  the  tank.  The  quantity  of  rags  presenting  at  one 
time  being  in  this  case  diminished,  there  need  be  no 
fear  of  the  accidents  previously  alluded  to,  and  the  cylin- 
der shouTd  be  at  once  lowered  towards  the  plate. 


MANUFACTURE. 


45 


The  work  is  not  quite  so  rapidly  done  as  in  the 
former  instance,  but  less  need  be  feared  from  the  care- 
lessness of  workmen.  '  It  also  gives  us  an  opportunity  of 
detecting  any  foreign  bodies,  such  as  stones,  nails,  but- 
tons, etc.,  accidentally  or  maliciously  mixed  with  the 
rags,  and  whose  presence  might  disable  the  blades  of  the 
plate  or  cylinder. 

The  dirty  water  runs  off  by  the  strainers  and  washing 
drums ;  as  soon  as  the  water  grows  clean  the  foreman 
lowers  the  cylinder  upon  the  plate  so  as  completely  to 
disintegrate  the  rags,  which  gradually  lose  their  textile 
appearance,  and  take  on,  as  it  were,  that  of  a  very  fine, 
long-fibred  lint  saturated  with  water.  This  substance  is 
more  or  less  white,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rags 
from  which  it  is  made. 

The  duration  of  the  reduction  varies  according  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  tank,  the  weight  of  the  cylinder,  the 
number  of  its  revolutions  per  minute,  the  extent  to 
which  its  blades  and  those  of  the  plate  are  worn,  the 
amount  and  purity  of  the  water  used  in  washing,  the 
nature  -of  the  rags,  and  the  skill  of  the  workman  who 
directs  the  operation. 

In  mills  where  the  number  of  these  engines  is  limited, 
the  process  of  r^uction  has  to  be  hastened,  but  it  is 
always  at  the  expense  of  the  quality  of  the  product.  It 
takes  from  two  to  three  hours  for  the  work  to  be  well 
done. 

It  is  well  to  observe  that  if  the  pulp  is  to  be  bleached 
with  chlorine  gas,  the  reduction  should  be  kept  up  longer 
than  if  liquid  chlorine  is  to  be  used,  in  which  case,  if 
five  hours  can  be  given  to  the  operation,  the  rags  will 
be  more  thoroughly  washed,  and  the  pulp  all  the  better. 

M.  Planche  recommends,  and  we  fully  agree  with  him, 
that  the  engines  should  be  arranged  in  two  stories.  The 


46  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKIJSTG. 


upper  one,  in  which  the  preliminary  washing  is  to  take 
place,  is  furnished  with  strainers  and  washing-drums 
of  coarser  wire  cloth,  which  allows  a  very  rapid  transmis- 
sion of  water.  The  lower  cylinders  receive  the  material, 
after  the  washing  is  nearly  finished,  and  continue  the 
reduction,  thus  rendering  it  more  complete. 

In  a  manufactory  of  fine  papers,  the  increase  of  manual 
labor,  and  of  the  duration  of  the  operation  occasioned  is 
more  than  compensated  by  the  greater  purity  of  the  re- 
sulting product.  , 

In  localities  where  the  water  is  impure  and  filtering 
expensive,  these  last-named  engines  might  be  alone  sup- 
plied with  clarified  water. 

During  the  entire  process  the  workman  should  tho- 
roughly stir  the  material  and  see  that  it  be  kept  homoge- 
neous by  bringing  it  constantly  to  the  surface,  without 
which  it  runs  great  danger  of  being  but  imperfectly  re- 
duced. 

An  easy  mechanical  means  of  keeping  up  a  continuous 
stirring  is  to  let  in  the  water  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
tank,  so  that  through  the  velocity  of  its  passage  pro- 
duced by  pressure  it  may  keep  the  contents  constantly 
agitated. 

When  the  reduction  is  complete  tfie  foreman  raises 
the  discharge  plug,  and  the  half  stuff"  runs  off",  either 
into  the  drainage  boxes,  or  directly  into  the  bleaching 
cisterns,  if  liquid  chlorine  be  employed. 

Some  manufacturers  bleach  in  the  rag  engine  itself; 
but  this  is  a  bad  plan.  The  reducing  process  has  to  be 
suspended  for  a  time,  and  this  obliges  us  to  have  several 
engines.  Moreover,  the  tanks  are  usually  metallic,  and 
will  be  more  or  less  corroded  by  the  chlorine  and  sul- 
phuric acid  which  are  used  to  disengage  the  bleaching 
agent.    This  remark  applies  still  more  to  the  blades  of 


MANUFACTURE.  47 

tlie  cylinder  and  the  plate  which  are  not  preserved  as  is 
the  interior  of  the  tank  by  a  coat  of  paint.  Before  letting 
down  the  plug  the  workman  throws  a  few  buckets  of 
water  under  the  cylinder  in  order  to  carry  off  any  of  the 
half  stuff  remaining  attached  to  the  inclined  planes. 
When  the  engine  is  completely  raised,  it  is  ready  for  the 
reduction  of  a  new  lot. 

It  is  well  to  keep  a  daily  register  in  the  engine-rooms, 
in  which  the  time  of  commencing  and  completing  each 
operation  may  be  set  down.  This  register  is  important, 
especially  for  night  work,  when  the  superintendence  is 
less  regular  than  in  the  daytime. 

In  a  well-regulated  mill  the  water  used  in  washing  is 
collected  in  large  stone  cisterns,  where  the  materials 
carried  off  are  allowed  to  settle.  The  fibrous  particles 
are  then  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  boards  and 
packing  papers,  and  the  residue,  consisting  of  alkaline 
and  fatty  matters,  may  be  made  useful  as  manure. 

Waste  occasioned  by  washing,  boiling,  and  reduction 
to  half  stuff : — 

Whites,  fine,  half  fine       .       .       .  T  to  10  per  cent, 

coarse        .       .       .       .  9  "  13  '* 

Cottons,  white   Y  "  9  "  " 

colored       .       .       .       .  8  "  U  " 

Thirds  and  pack-cloths     .       .       .  18  "  26  "  " 

Ropes   20  "  25  "  " 

"     tarred  and  containing  much  straw  20  "  35  " 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  these  figure  can  only 
be  taken  as  approximate  averages. 

§  5.  Drainage. 

After  the  reduction  of  the  rags  to  half  stuff,  it  is  in- 
dispensable that  the  pulp  should  be  subjected  to  a 


■  • 

48  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

drainage,  in  order  to  render  it  more  permeable  to  the 
chlorine  gas,  if  that  agent  is  to  be  used  in  bleaching. 

The  most  simple  means  of  effecting  this  is  the  natural 
drainage  carried  on  in  large,  oblong,  rectangular  reser- 
voirs of  wood,  stone,  or  cemented  bricks,  having  a  floor 
of  wire  cloth  or  porous  bricks  of  peculiar  make. 

When  a  lot  of  the  half  stuff  is  ready,  the  foreman  raises 
the  discharge  plug,  as  we  have  already  said,  and  the 
pulp  runs  off  through  copper  pipes  to  be  conv.eyed  to  the 
reservoirs. 

At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  for  soft  cotton  rags, 
five  or  six  for  those  of  linen,  and  eight  or  ten  for  harder 
kinds,  the  material  loses  the-  greater  part  of  its  water,  and 
becomes  spongy.  The  drainage  may  be  considered  suf- 
ficient when  no  water  can  be  squeezed  out  of  the  pulp 
by  pressing  it  between  the  fingers. 

It  is  well  to  facilitate  the  drainage  of  the  harder  pulps 
by  placing  a  layer  of  soft  pulp  at  the  bott6m  of  the  reser- 
voirs, which  thus  serves,  so  to  speak,  as  a  filter  at  the 
same  time  that  it  sucks  in  the  water  from  the  layer 
above. 

It  being  impossible  to  adopt  this  natural  drainage  in 
mills  where  space  is  wanting  to  set  up  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  reservoirs,  means  have  been  sought  to  produce  it 
artificially. 

Three  kinds  of  apparatus  are  employed : — 
1st.  Screw  and  hydraulic  processes.  By  means  of  a 
square  case,  or,  still  better,  a  round  tub,  the  sides  of 
which  are  pierced  with  holes  over  their  entire  surface, 
and  with  a  cover  moving  with  the  press  and  piston,  cakes 
of  compact  half  stuff  are  made  containing  the  product 
of  one  operation  of  the  engine. 

This  cake  is  afterwards  torn  into  shreds  with  iron  picks 
similar  to  those  used  in  farming. 

s 


MANUFACTURE. 


49 


This  system  is  attended  with  many  inconveniences ; 
the  fibres  become  so  adherent  to  each  other,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  pressure,  that  unless  the  picking  to  pieces 
is  very  carefully  managed,  the  interior  parts  are  so  com- 
pact as  to  be  only  imperfectly  bleached. 

2d.  The  Lamothe-Ferrand  drainer  consists  of  a  sim- 
plified miniature  paper-machine,  with  a  fine  wire  gauze, 
on  which  the  half  stuff  is  made  into  a  kind  of  moist 
board,  and  formed  into  rolls  of  different  size.  These 
rolls  are  then  placed  on  end  upon  the  bleaching  cases. 

This  apparatus  presents  the  same  inconveniences  as 
the  hydraulic  press,  although  in  a  less  degree.  Never- 
theless it  has  rendered,  and  continues  to  render,  great 
service  in  mills  manufacturing  the  common  kinds  of 
paper. 

For  fine  and  superfine  papers  we  recommend  either 
the  natural  drainage  or  the  use  of  the  following  machine. 

3d.  Turbine  drainer  acting  by  centrifugal  force  (Fr. 
essoreuse). 

This  apparatus,  similar  to  that  now  so  widely  used  for 
drying  linen  and  draining  sugar-loaves,  produces  a  half 
stuff,  which  has  the  greatest  analogy  to  that  obtained  by 
natural  drainage.  Aften  ten  or  fifteen  minutes'  rotation 
the  pulp  becomes  spongy,  and  may  at  once  be  carried  to 
the  bleachers. 

The  application  of  this  machine  to  the  work  of  a  paper- 
mill  is  due  to  M.  E-ieder,  of  Rixheim. 

§  6.  Bleaching. 

Before  the  discovery  of  the  discoloring  chlorides  and 
of  chlorine  gas,  only  choice  rags  could  be  employed  for 
the  manufacture  of  fine  papers ;  at  the  present  day,  thanks 
to  the  use  of  this  agent,  the  deepest  colored  cotton  rags 
4 


50  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

and  the  commonest  and  coarser,  such  as  thirds,  ropes, 
and  pack-cloths,  can  be  transformed  into  white  paper. 

There  are  two  methods  of  bleaching;  either  with  liquid 
chlorine,  or  with  chlorine  gas.  Some  manufacturers  em- 
ploy the  two  conjointly. 

Liquid  chlorine,  the  abbreviation  for  a  solution  of  the 
hypochlorite  of  lime  (CaO,C10  +  CaCl)  in  water,  is  usu- 
ally prepared  in  great  wooden  cisterns  lined  with  lead  or 
painted  with  a  double  coat  of  white  lead.  The  chloride 
is  ground  up  wjith  two  or  three  parts  of  water ;  this  is 
allowed  to  rest  for  a  moment,  and  then  the  supernatant 
liquid  is  decanted  into  the  cistern.  "Where  this  has  been 
repeated  three  or  four  times  the  soluble  chlorinated  por- 
tion will  have  been  completely  carried  off.  A  residuum 
remains  consisting  of  sand,  carbonate  of  lime,  &c.,  which 
may  be  thrown  away. 

The  final  concentration  of  the  liquid  is  such  that  one 
kilogramme  (220  lbs.)  of  chloride  of  lime  will  produce,, 
according  to  its  richness  in  chlorine,  from  eight  to  twelve 
litres  (from  1.76  to  2.64  gallons)  of  the  liquid. 

To  keep  a  mill  constantly  going  there  should  be  at 
least  two  cisterns,  one  which  serves  for  the  day's  work, 
another  which  the  workman  prepares  for  the  day  fol- 
lowing, and  if  there  is  room  enough,  the  use  of  three  in 
rotation  would  be  preferable,  allowing  the  liquid  of  the 
intermediate  cistern  to  rest  twenty-four  hours. 

The  quantity  of  the  chloride  used  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  rags ;  2  to  2.5  per  cent,  for  white  rags, 
while  others,  on  the  contrary,  require  7,  8,  or  10  per 
cent.  For  these  last,  chlorine  gas  is  more  economical, 
and  therefore  preferable. 

Bleaching  is  performed  in  the  rag  engine  itself,  or  in 
separate  wooden  bleaching  vats,  from  five  to  eight  metres 
(16.40  to  19.68  ft.)  long,  and  from  2.50  metres  (8.20  ft.) 


MANUFACTURE. 


51 


broad,  and  0.90  to  1.00  metre  (2.95  to  3.28  ft.)  deep,  and 
able  to  contain  from  300  to  600  kilog.  (661.42  to  1322.84 
lbs.  avoird.)  of  half  stuff. 

When  the  bleaching  vat  is  filled,  the  chlorine  bath  is 
added.  Through  the.  agitation  produced  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  cylinder,  and  by  vigorous  stirring,  the  hypo- 
chlorite is  decomposed  by  the  carbonic  acid  contained 
in  the  water,  and  pervading  the  atmosphere.  The  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  formed,  and  the  chlorine  passes  into 
the  condition  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

.It  is  not  exactly  understood  how  the  discoloration  of 
the  pulp  is  effected  in  this  last  chemical  reaction ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  hydrogen  in  its  nascent  state  produces 
the  phenomenon  of  bleaching.  The  chlorine  only  acts 
by  its  transformation  into  hydrochloric  acid. 

When  we  consider  the  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
contained  in  the  atmosphere,  only  from  jq^qq  to  yo^l  o"o' 
we  can  understand  the  slowness  of  the  bleaching  opera- 
tion. 

To  facilitate  the  disengagement  of  the  chlorine,  sul- 
phuric acid  is  generally  employed.  The  liberation  of 
the  gas  is  almost  instantaneous,  and  a  suffocating  odor 
is  diffused  around  the  vat. 

Instead  of  pouring  in  sulphuric  acid  of  the  ordinary 
strength,  it  is  better  to  dilute  it  with  ten  to  twenty  times 
its  own  weight  of  water. 

If  the  pulp  is  not  to  be  used  at  once,  it  is  returned  to 
the  draining  reservoirs  or  chests. 

To  reduce  the  number  of  these  chests,  which  ought 
not  to  be  less  than  three,  the  half  stuff  is  removed  after 
twelve  hours'  rest  to  the  vault  where  the  pulps  are  kept. 
This  store-room  should  be  vaulted,  paved,  and  cemented 
with  ^reat  care,  and  should  slope  gradually  towards  a 
drain  which  will  carry  off  all  the  water. 


52  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


In  order  to  avoid  confusion,  it  is  important  that  each 
lot  should  bear  a  label  describing  its  quality. 

Sometimes  the  pulps  are  bleached  a  second  time  to 
obtain  a  whiter  product. 

M.  Planche  recommends  the  following  process,  which 
he  has  employed  for  many  years : — 

The  bleaching  tub  once  filled,  he  allows  the  water  to 
drain  off,  and  be  replaced  by  a  bath  of  liquid  chlorine. 
After  producing  its  effect,  the  chlorinated  liquid  descends 
into  a  lower  reservoir,  and  is  succeeded  by  an  acid  bath 
(sulphuric  acid).  "While  the  chemical  action  is  going  on, 
the  chlorine  water  is  carried  up  to  its  original  reservoir, 
where  a  workman,  especially  designated  for  that  duty, 
adds  to  it  a  quantity  of  fresh  chlorides,  so  as  to  keep  the 
strength  of  the  liquid  uniformly  the  same.  The  strength 
of  the  acidulated  bath  is  renewed  in  the  same  manner. 
When  this  operation  has  been  repeated  two,  three,  or 
four  times,  the  half  stuff  acquires  a  brilliant  whiteness. 

This  method,  though  rational  enough  in  principle,  has 
the  objection  of  being  complicated.  I  would  not  recom- 
mend it  in  a  mill  where  the  pulps  to  be  bleached  are 
variable.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  a  chlorine  bath  of  the 
same  strength  at  all  times.  The  workman  is  allowed 
too  much  control  of  the  process,  as  he  has  neither  the 
instruments  nor  the  instruction  necessary  to  make  an 
accurate  estimate. 

This  process,  modified  in  the  following  manner,  is 
more  practicable.  A  determined  volume  of  chlorinated 
liquid  is  let  into  the  tank,  and  after  a  certain  interval 
the  requisite  quantity  of  the  acid  is  added.  When  the 
chemical  action  has  taken  place,  the  greater  part  of  the 
bath  is  allowed  to  run  off,  and  considered  as  lost.  A 
fresh  supply  of  the  chloride  is  let  in,  which  manifests 
its  chemical  action  at  the  expense  of  the  small  proportion 


MAOTFACTURE. 


53 


of  acid  remaining.  When  the  bleaching  is  completed 
this  last  bath  is  used,  as  a  vehicle  to  effect  the  solution 
of  the  original  amount  of  the  powdered  chloride. 

The  degree  of  concentration  being  the  same,  the  re- 
action will  naturally  be  more  energetic  as  the  volume 
employed  is  increased.  It  will  then  be  sufficient  to  give 
the  workman  for  each  bath  the  amount  of  the  chloride 
indicated  on  the  foreman's  list  for  the  bleaching  room. 

After  the  second  bath  has  run  off  the  pulp  must  be 
freed  by  washing  out  the  chlorine  it  contains,  whose 
slow  but  continuous  action  would  disintegrate  the  fibres, 
and  end  by  affecting  their  strength. 

If  these  washings  are  not  carefully  dotie  it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  papers  stored  in  warehouses  exhale  an 
odor  of  chlorine,  and  lose  their  whiteness  little  by  little, 
until  they  become  quite  yellowish. 

Some  manufacturers  pursue  a  different  course.  The 
half  stuff  is  bleached  to  the  required  point,  the  con- 
tents of  the  vat  are  then  let  down  into  the  drainage 
chests,  and  after  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours'  delay  are 
laid  away  in  the  stone  vault.  The  bleaching  continues, 
and  the  washing  does  not  take  place  until  the  pulp 
reaches  the  beating  or  refining  engine. 

The  product  is  whiter,  but  the  loss  of  substance  is 
greater  by  this  method.  When  the  washing  is  done  in 
the  bleaching  apparatus,  it  is  well  to  facilitate  the  ope- 
ration by  adding  a  small  proportion  of  the  hyposulphite 
of  soda,  known  in  paper-making  as  antichlorine. 

By  the  addition  of  this  substance  there  are  formed 
sulphate  of  soda,  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  is,  therefore,  indispensable  to  con- 
tinue the  washing,  in  order  to  eliminate  these  new  pro- 
ducts, fortunately  all  very  soluble. 

The  chloride  of  lime  is  generally  bought  already  pre- 


54  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


pared.  Nevertheless,  in  a  large  mill,  it  may  be  advan- 
tageous to  make  it  ourselves.  We  give,  further  on,  the 
method  to  be  pursued  in  its  preparation. 

Chlorine  gas  being  less  expensive,  and  its  action  more 
energetic,  and  therefore  better  suited  to  the  coarser  and 
more  strongly  colored  rags  than  the  chloride  of  lime, 
most  manufacturers  employ  it  in  profusion. 

Chlorine  gas  is  made  by  means,  either  of  sulphuric  or 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  relative  cost  of  these  two  acids 
determines  which  should  be  employed. 

Bertholet,  to  whom  we  owe  the  application  of  this 
substance  to  bleaching  stuffs  and  pulps,  made  use  of  the 
following  proportions : — 

0.3t0  parts  of  peroxide  of  manganese, 
1.000        *'    common  salt, 

0.140        "    ordinary  sulphuric  acid  of  commerce, 
O.UO        ^*  water. 

We  now  adopt : — 

1  part  manganese, 

^  to  2  parts  common  salt, 

2  "    sulphuric  acid, 
2  water. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  gas  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
1  part  of  manganese  and  3  parts  of  the  acid  are  alone 
used. 

These  figures  are  not  absolute ;  they  depend  entirely 
upon  the  composition  of  the  manganese  and  the  strength 
of  the  acids. 

Chlorine  is  generally  prepared  in  especially  adapted 
retorts,  into  which  the  manganese  and  the  acid  are  con- 
veyed by  an  S  shaped  tube.  It  is  best  to  have  the  man- 
ganese in  the  lump  and  not  in  powder,  as  the  action  of 
the  acid  on  the  latter  is  more  tardy,  and  agitation  is 
necessary  to  effect  a  mixture  of  the  two  substances. 


MANUFACTURE. 


55 


When  sulphuric  acid  is  used  the  acid  must  be  first 
mixed  with  the  water,  and  the  manganese  with  the  salt 
as  much  as  possible.  The  acid  is  poured  in  by  degrees  ; 
the  gas  is  generated,  and  the  whole  is  heated  to  100°  C. 
(212  Fahr,),  requiring  ten  or  fourteen  hours  for  the  ope- 
ration. 

The  gas  in  escaping  always  carries  with  it  a  small 
proportion  of  hydrochloric  acid,  of  which  it  is  important 
to  free  it  before  conducting  it  into  the  bleaching  chests 
or  chambers,  as  the  acid  injures  the  toughness  of  the 
pulp-fibres. 

Two  means  are  adopted  to  attain  this  object: — 

The  first  consists  in  leading  the  pipe  which  conveys 
the  gas  into  a  receiver  containing-  a  little  water.  The 
pipe  only  dips  a  few  lines  below  the  surface,  in  order 
that  the  height  of  the  column  of  liquid  may  not  exercise 
a  sensible  pressure  in  opposition  to  the  escape  of  the 
gas.  The  bubbles  of  gas  give  up  their-  particles  of 
hydrochloric  acid  at  the  contact  of  the  water  which 
mechanically  washes  them  away. 

By  the  second  method,  a  retort  containing  pieces  of 
manganese  is  employed.  These  retain  the  hydrochlo- 
ric acid,  and  liberate  a  proportionate  amount  of  chlorine. 
After  each  operation,  the  resulting  chloride  of  manga- 
nese is  drawn  off  by  a  small  stopcock,  and  when  the 
manganese  becomes  exhausted  it  is  replenished,  by  a 
supply  of  fresh  material. 

The  purified  gas  is  conveyed  into  the  chambers  by 
means  of  large  leaden  pipes.  The  chambers  should  be 
hermetically  closed  by  pasting  strips  of  paper  along  the 
door  cracks. 

The  chambers  are  filled  with  half-stuff  in  different 
ways : — 

If  the  Lamothe-Ferrand  drainer  is  used,  the  rolls  are 


56 


PRACTICAL  G\jTJ)E  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


first  placed  side  by  side,  and  then  one  above  the  other, 
so  as  to  form  two  stories.  The  half  stuff  obtained  by 
other  methods  is  thrown  in  just  as  it  is  or  in  little  blocks, 
without  packing,  so  that  the  gas  may  be  allowed  to  cir- 
culate through  it  more  freely. 

In  some  paper-mills  it  is  placed  on  boards  arranged  in 
stories  0.60  metres  (23.58  inches). 

It  should  be  observed,  that  boards  with  sawed  edges 
are  not  to  be  used  if  it  can  be  helped ;  the  cells  of  the 
woody  fibre  are  quickly  attacked  by  the  chlorine  at  the 
points  where  they  are  torn  through,  and  peel  off  very 
easily,  causing  an  impurity  in  the  pulp,  which  should  be 
avoided,  when  working  in  fine  papers. 

The  proportion  of  chlorine  employed  varies  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  rags : — 

For  100  parts  of  white  rags  there  are  usu&llj  taken, 

15  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
5  parts  of  manganese. 
For  commoner  rags, 

21  parts  of  acid, 

20  parts  of  manganese. 

We  advise  every  manufacturer  to  have  a  small  test 
box  containing  perhaps  20  kilog.  (44.09  lbs.  avoid.)  of 
dry  pulp,  and  to  examine  the  effect  of  the  chlorine,  by 
gradually  increasing  its  quantity. 

The  escape  of  chlorine  may  be  surmised  from  its  pecu- 
liar odor,  and  it  is  readily  detected  by  holding  a  small 
uncorked  vial  of  ammonia  near  the  suspected  leak.  If 
the  chlorine  is  escaping,  white  clouds  of  the  chloride  of 
ammonium  will  appear  at  once. 

When  the  bleaching  is  thought  to  be  accomplished, 
the  doors  are  opened,  and  as  soon  as  the  workmen  can 
bear  the  odor  of  chlorine  mixed  with  air,  the  half  stuff 
is  carried  off. 


MANUFACTURE. 


57 


Some  manufacturers  bleach  their  stuffs  with  chlorine 
gas,  and  then  with  the  liquid  chlorine  in  order  to  give 
them  a  greater  brilliancy.  This  also  allows  us  to  employ 
a  smaller  proportion  of  the  gas,  and  lessens  the  danger' 
of  an  excessive  action  upon  the  fibres. 

When  the  half  stuff  leaves  the  bleaching  chests,  it  is 
carried  to  the  stone- vault,  from  which  it  is  removed  as 
needed. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  bleach  by  elec- 
tricity. The  various  kinds  of  apparatus  proposed  are  all 
based  upon  the  following  principle:  By  a  current  of 
electricity,  water  is  decomposed  into  its  constituent  ele- 
ments, oxygen  and  hydrogen.  This  latter  substance,  in 
its  nascent  state,  serves  as  the  bleaching  agent.  Thus 
far,  the  results  of  this  mode  of  bleaching  have  been  so 
uncertain  that  we  need  only  mention  it  in  order  to  record 
the  suggestion. 

The  waste  from  bleaching  varies : — 

The  fine  rags  from  1.5  to  3.5  per  cent. 

The  coarse  rags  and  thirds  from  2.8  to  7.5  per  cent. 

The  foll?)wing  extract  on  the  subject  of  bleaching  is 
made  from  the  works  of  M.  L.  S.  Le  Normand.^ 

The  rags  which  are  used  in  paper  making  are  bleached 
by  the  action  of  chlorine,  in  much  the  same  way  as  cloths, 
with  some  modifications,  however,  as  will  be  seen  farther 
on.  We  borrow  from  the  Dictionnaire  Technologique 
the  two  articles  furnished  by  the  learned  M.  Eobiquet 
on  this  subject,  so  important  to  the  papqr  manufacturer. 

*  Nouveau  manuel  coraplet  du  fabricant  de  papier,  ou  de  Part  de 
la  papeterie. 


I 


58  practical  guide  for  paper-making. 

"  The  Bleaching  of  Cloths." 

"  Ever  since  the  art  of  making  cloths  has  been  known, 
the  art  of  bleaching  them  has  also  been  understood.  It 
was  universally  known  that  by  exposing  raw  flax  and 
hemp  to  the  simultaneous  action  of  water  and  sunlight 
the  coloring  matter  with  which  they  are  naturally  in- 
vested could  be  made  to  disappear.  In  all  ages  attempts 
have  been  made  to  explain  this  singular  phenomenon, 
but  as  long  as  the  nature  of  light  remains  undiscovered, 
nothing  but  what  is  vague  and  uncertain  can  be  said 
upon  the  subject. 

"The  bleaching  of  cloths  may  be  effected,  as  I  have 
just  said,  by  the  combined  action  of  light  and  moisture 
alone ;  but  then  this  requires  a  long  time,  which  has 
been  greatly  shortened,  by  the  employment  of  some  other 
agents,  and  especially  acids  and  alkalies.  Long  before 
the  discovery  of  chlorine,  cloths  were  perfectly  well 
bleached. 

"  Flanders  and  Holland  were  the  first  and  principal 
coimtries  in  which  this  art  received  its  mosf  important 
improvements.  .Since  that  time  the  process  has  been 
generally  perfected,  and  now  an  equal  amount  of  success 
is  obtained  everywhere. 

"  In  bleaching  cloths,  there  are  some  preliminary 
operations  which  belong  to  all  processes  alike.  Cloths 
of  the  same  grain  and  the  same  shade,  should  first  be 
sorted,  so  that  the  changes  which  are  to  take  place  may 
do  so  for  each  in  an  equal  interval  of  time.  Otherwise 
some  will  be  scarcely  attacked,  while  others  will  be 
already  too  much  so.  A  second  operation  is  that  which 
consists  in  freeing  them  from  foreign  substances  with 
which  they  have  been  impregnated  to  facilitate  weaving. 
This  kind  of  sizing  or  dressing,  with  which  the  texture 


« 


MANUFACTURE.  59 

is  covered  during  its  manufacture,  would  offer  an  ob- 
stacle to  the  absorbing  power  of  the  threads,  and  the 
influence  of  external  agents.  This  dressing,  then,  must 
first  of  all  be  destroyed,  but  destroyed  by  some  means 
which  will  not  be  able  to  attack  the  vegetable  fibre. 
This  is  usually  done  by  a  sort  of  well-managed  fermen- 
tation ;  the  operation  requires  great  experience,  and  the 
following  is  the  method  to  be  employed. 

"  The  cloth  is  first  doubled  into  equal  folds,  then  it  is 
placed  in  the  vat  in  layers,  upon  each  of  which,  as  they 
are  arranged,  a  few  buckets  of  tepid  river  water  are 
thrown.  If  the  cloths  are  but  slightly  charged  with 
mucilage,  a  small  proportion  of  bran  or  rye  meal  is  added, 
to  expedite  the  fermentation.-^  If  otherwise,  this  addi- 
tion is  dispensed  with.  When  the  vat  is  full,  it  is  covered 
over,  and  very  often  weights  are  placed  upon  the  cloths, 
so  that  they  may  not  be  raised  during  the  process  of 
fermentation,  which  is  developed  in  a  few  hours,  and 
whose  progress  is  the  more  rapid,  as  the  prevailing  tem- 
perature is  raised.  The  establishment  of  fermentation 
may  be  recognized,  by  the  scum  which  is  seen  to  form, 
and  especially  the  bubbles  of  gas  which  burst  upon  the 
surface  of  the  liquid.  When  the  fermentation  is  com- 
pleted, this  disengagement  of  gas  ceases,  and  the  scum 
disappears.  It  is  at  this  stage  that  the  cloths  are  to  be 
removed  and  washed ;  this  is  usually  at  the  end  of 
twenty-four,  thirty,  or  thirty-six  hours,  according  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  fermentation,  as  also  the  fineness  of  the 
cloths.  The  exact  moment  to  be  seized,  experience  alone 
can  teach.  If  the  proper  point  is  passed,  there  will  be 
danger  of  losing  the  whole ;  a  few  moments  will  often 

*  M.  Clement  thinks  it  would  be  better  to  add  molasses,  in  order 
not  to  use  anything  which  might  contribute  to  a  putrid  fermentation. 


60  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

suffice  for  putrid  fermentation  to  set  in,  and  destroy  the 
stuffs.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  author  has  sought 
to  determine  what  kind  of  fermentation  is  produced  on 
this  occasion,  and  how  it  acts  upon  the  cloths.  All  that 
is  known  is,  that  the  gas  which  is  disengaged  is  inflam- 
mable, and  that  a  certain  quantity  of  acid  is  generated 
which  afterwards  disappears.  Thus  the  same  phenomena 
are  observed  in  this  case  as  those  which  are  produced  by 
the  destruction  of  gluten  in  the  preparation  of  starch. 
It  is  not  therefore  likely  that  this  is  an  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation, and  that  molasses  would  be  of  any  use.  The 
fermentation  is  not  alone  intended  to  destjroy  the  dress- 
ing ;  it  is  likewise  necessary  that  the  pores  of  the  cloth 
should  be  opened,  that  water  should  penetrate  them 
somewhat,  and  that  the  foreign  substances  which  are 
deposited  in  them  should  be  attained  and  easily  removed. 
However  this  may  be,  the  cloths  should  be  washed  with 
the  greatest  care  immediately  after  they  have  been  sub- 
jected to  maceration.  In  this  manner  a  great  deal  of 
dirt,  which  differs  essentially  from  the  coloring  matter, 
and  which,  not  being  soluble  in  the  same  agents,  presents 
great  obstacles  to  the  bleaching,  especially  of  fine  mus- 
lins, lawns,  and  thread  laces,  is  abstracted. 

"  The  w^ashing  or  cleansing  is  performed  in  different 
ways :  two  wooden  rollers  are  often  used,  between  which 
the  cloth  is  made  to  pass ;  these  rollers  ought  to  be 
covered,  and  arranged  over  a  current  of  water ;  the  infe- 
rior roller  is  smooth,  the  upper  one  grooved ;  sometimes 
the  grooves  are  far  apart  and  irregular;  generally  a 
certain  number  of  these  rollers  are  placed  one  after  the 
other.  After  the  piece  of  cloth  has  passed  through  the 
first  two,  and  has  fallen  into  the  water,  it  is  taken  up, 
passed  between^the  next  two,  and  so  on. 

"  In  many  factories,  they  use  a  circular  platform  revolv- 


MANUFACTURE. 


61 


ing  on  its  axis,  the  circumference  of  which  is  sustained 
by  rollers,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  for  the  roof  of 
a  wind-mill.  A  workman  places  the  cloths  to  be  beaten 
on  the  platform;  a  crank  adapted  to  a  paddle-wheel 
causes  the  platform  to  turn  slowly,  and  in  such  a  way 
that  all  the  pieces  pass  in  regular  succession  under  a 
certain  number  of  beaters  set  in  motion  by  the  axle  of 
the  same  wheel.  The  workman  turns  the  cloths  so  as 
to  present  each  surface  to  the  beaters,  and  a  current  of 
water,  kept  up  by  the  paddle-wheel,  flows  incessantly 
over  the  cloths,  and  carries  ofl"  all  heterogeneous  and 
soluble  substances. 

"  For  some  years,  the  preference  seems  to  have  been 
given  to  a  washing-machine  successfully  used  in  Eng- 
land, and  called  dark- wheel;  it  is  a  kind  of  barrel  or 
drum  which  is  turned  upon  its  axis  by  means  of  a  crank, 
and  having  its  interior  divided  by  four  parti tion^  which 
intersect  at  right  angles.  Each  of  these  partitions  corres- 
ponds with  an  opening  made  in  one  of  the  ends.  A 
pipe  which  communicates  with  a  reservoir,  and  termi- 
nated by  a  stopcock,  throws  into  the  opposite  end  a 
stream  of  water  which  enters  by  a  circular  opening. 
Two  pieces  of  cloth  are  thrown  in  by  each  of  the  four 
holes  which  correspond  with  the  divisions ;  the  machine 
is  put  in  motion  by  almost  any  power,  and  the  stopcock 
is  then  opened.  At  each  revolution,  the  pieces  of  cloth 
fall  from  one  partition  to  another,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  water  they  have  absorbed  is  thrown  out  by  the  force 
of  the  great  pressure  which  their  fall  occasions.  When 
this  machine  is  well  managed,  eight  pieces  of  cloth  can 
be  perfectly  beaten  and  cleansed  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour ; 
but  the  best  success  will  be  obtained  by  giving  it  a  mean 
velocity  of  twenty  to  twenty-two  revolutions  a  minute. 
If  the  machine  were  more  rapidly  turned,  the  cloths 


62 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


would  remain  attached  to  the  circumference  where  they 
would  be  thrown  by  the  centrifugal  force,  would  be  kept 
always  impregnated  with  the  same  water,  and,  conse- 
quently, would  not  be  cleaned.  In  England,  this 
machine  has  been  substituted  for  all  those  we  have 
mentioned,  not  only  because  it  offers  an  economy  in 
point  of  time,  but  also  because  it  has  not,  like  the  others, 
the  serious  inconvenience  of  impoverishing  the  texture 
by  the  continual  friction  to  which  it  is  subjected  by  the 
other  methods.  The  dark  wheel  is  beginning  to  be  used 
in  France. 

"It  is  where  the  cloths  have  been  completely  relieved 
of  their  dressing,  and  of  everything  which  is  foreign  to 
them,  that  they  are  subjected  to  bleaching,  to  carry  off  the 
coloring  materials.-^  It  was  thought  that  the  successive 
use  of  chlorine  and  lyes  would  be  sufficient  for  bleach- 
ing purposes ;  but  experience  has  shown  that  nothing 
can  take  the  place  of  the  action  of  light,  especially  for 
linen  cloths ;  and  we  have  been  obliged  to  return  to  it. 
The  method  of  bleaching  actually  employed  does  not 
differ  from  the  Dutch  system  except  in  the  additional 
use  of  chlorine,  which  allows  us  to  greatly  accelerate  the 
general  progress  of  the  operation.  Thus,  in  bleaching 
cloths,  they  are  generally  subjected  to  the  alternate 
action  of  lyes,  sunlight,  chlorine,  and  acids.  These  pro- 
cesses are  very  numerous,  because  each  one  of  them  is 
repeated  several  times. 

"  Chlorine  and  sunlight  appear  to  act  in  the  same  gene- 

*  According  to  M.  Welter,  the  difference  between  washing  and 
bleaching  cannot  be  too  much  insisted  on.  They  are  two  entirely 
different  things,  and  the  first  is  generally  niuch  more  difficult  than  the 
latter.  There  are  even  certain  cloths,  and  especially  those  of  Flan- 
ders, which  only  need  to  be  cleansed ;  so  that  there  is  no  necessity 
for  the  use  of  chlorine  in  bleaching  them. 


MANUFACTURE. 


63 


ral  way,  but  probably  by  different  means ;  chlorine  does 
not  limit  its  action,  as  was  supposed,  to  changing  the 
nature  of  the  coloring  matter,  but  in  abstracting  its  hydro- 
gen it  combines  with  it ;  and  the  employment  of  alkalies 
is  useful  to  dissolve  not  only  that  part  of  the  coloring 
matter  which  has  undergone  the  action  of  the  chlorine, 
but  also  the  chlorine  itself  which  may  have  become 
fixed.  As  to  light,  all  that  is  known  of  its  action,  is 
that  it  predisposes  the  coloring  matters  to  combine  with 
oxygen,  and  that  this  combination  is  singularly  favored 
by  keeping  the  cloth  wet. 

"  It  is  possible,  as  some  authors  pretend,  that  light 
only  acts  in  this  case  as  might  a  high  temperature,  which 
would  determine  such  a  reaction  among  the  elements, 
that  new  compounds  would  result  possessing  different 
qualities.  Now  it  is  well  known  that  nothing  favors 
chemical  reaction  so  much  as  the  conjoined  effects  of 
heat  and  moisture.  It  is  quite  commonly  believed  that 
the  coloring  matter  in  becoming  oxygenated,  is  converted 
into  a  true  acid,  and  that  it  is  especially  to  carry  off  this 
acid  that  alkalies  are  necessary.  As  to  the  degree  of 
usefulness  which  acids  attain  in  bleaching,  experience 
will  not  allow  us  to  admit  a  doubt,  and  it  seems  well 
proved  that  their  principal  function  is  to  carry  off  the 
calcareous  carbonate  produced  by  the  action  of  the  alkali 
on  the  salts  contained  in  the  water,  and  deposited  upon 
the  fibres  of  the  cloth;  to  remove  that  portion  of  the 
alkali  which  may  have  become  fixed  in  the  tissue,  and  in 
addition  to  dissolve  certain  metallic  oxides,  and  espe- 
cially that  of  iron,  which  is  found  to  form  a  part  of  the 
vegetable  material  and  which  soils  it."  . 

We  will  not  go  further  in  this  quotation  of  M.  Eobi- 
quet's  article  on  the  Bleaching  of  Cloths;  all  that 
follows  is,  without  doubt,  very  useful  for  cloths,  but 


64  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


would  be  superflous  in  treating  of  rags.  We  should  not 
even  have  introduced  here  the  extract  which  has  just 
been  read,  if  in  his  article  on  bleaching  paper  pulps,  the 
same  author  had  not  referred  to  his  article  on  the  Bleach- 
ing of  Cloths,  The  extract  which  follows  is  also 
borrowed  from  the  Dictionnaire  Technologique^  and 
belongs  to  the  same  author,  M.  Robiquet. 

''The  Bleaching  of  Paper  Pulp. — It  is  sufficient  to  know 
what  kind  of  material  is  used  in  making  paper,  to  under- 
stand that  the  method  of  bleaching  by  chlorine  may  be 
adapted  to  it  with  great  advantage.  Out  of  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  rags  employed  in  this  manufacture, 
there  is  only  a  very  small  portion  which  can  immediately 
furnish  white  paper;  all  the  rest,  by  following  the  old 
method,  can  only  serve  for  the  manufacture  of  papers  of 
inferior  quality,  unless  bleaching  is  practised,  as  it  is 
now  in  a  great  number  of  paper-mills.  This  innovation, 
generally  adopted  in  England,  is  much  less  widely  em- 
ployed in  France,  and  this  is  owing  to  that  sort  of 
inertia  which  is  so  injurious  to  the  progress  of  the  arts, 
and  perhaps  also  to  a  want  of  instruction.  Nevertheless 
we  see  the  difficulties  being  daily  removed;  and  now 
that  the  manufacturers  of  chemical  materials  can  reduce 
the  chloride  of  lime  to  a  very  moderate  price,  everything 
leads  us  to  think  that  we  shall  not  leave  our  neighbors 
the  sole  possession  of  this  very  important  improvement. 
Let  us  hope  that  before  long  we  shall  not  be  tributary 
to  the  foreign  market  for  the  papers  of  superior  quality 
with  which  we  still  continue  to  be  furnished. 

"  Loisel  is  one  of  those  who  has  busied  himself  with 
great  success  in  this  kind  of  research.  He  has  set  before 
us,  in  aii  article  which  may  be  found  incorporated  in  vol. 
39  of  the  Annales  de  ChimiCy  all  the  principal  results, 
which  he  has  obtained  in  this  respect.   We  see  that  the 


MANUFACTURE. 


65 


same  reasons  which  led  to  the  rejection  of  pure  chlorine 
in  the  bleaching  establishments  for  cloths  and  threads, 
hme  equally  opposed  themselves  to  its  use  in  the  bleach- 
ing of  rags.  Thus  at  a  time  wheif  it  was  thought  that  a 
small  quantity  of  alkali  injured  the  bleaching  qualities 
of  chlorine,  Loisel  proposed  to  receive  oxygenated  muri- 
atic acid  into  a  solution  of  one  hundred  kilogrammes 
(220,47  lbs.  avoird.)  of  potassa  in  one  hundred  litres 
(22.01  gallons)  of  water.  It  is  with  this  liquid  that 
he  was  enabled  to  give  the  rags  the  most  brilliant 
whiteness;  but  he  observed,  as  we  have  already  done  in 
regard  to  cloths,  that  the  first  immersions  only  acted 
superficially,  and,  to  avoid  repeating  them  a  great  num- 
ber of  times,  it  was  better  not  to  operate  upon  the  pulp 
as  it  is  ready  to  be  worked  up  into  paper,  for  at  that  time 
it  is  too  coherent  and  compact  to  allow  itself  to  be  easily 
permeated,  but  upon  the  rags  as  simply  reduced  to  half 
stuff  in  a  preliminary  engine,  which  suffices  to  open  the 
fibres  and  destroy  the  texture. 

"  For  motives  of  economy,  a  simple  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  has  been  substituted  for  this  bleaching  fluid  pro- 
posed by  Loisel ;  and  we  believe  that  we  need  not  here 
repeat  that  the  proportion  of  the  chloride  must  be  modi- 
fied according  to  the  quality  of  the  rags  upon  which  the 
action  is  to  take  place.  Experience  alone  can  guide  us  on 
this  subject.  It  is,  however,  to  be  supposed  that  the  neces- 
sary preliminary  precaution  of  sorting  the  diff'erent  kinds 
of  rags,  and  bleaching  those  of  the  same  quality  together 
has  been  observed.  I  shall  say  nothing  here  of  the  choice 
which  should  be  made,  according  to  the  kind  of  paper 
that  we  wish  to  manufacture,  as  I  am  only  concerning 
•myself  now  with  what  relates  to  bleaching.  We  have 
seen  in  the  article  on  |he  bleaching  of  cloth,  which  pre- 
cedes this,  that  the  employment  of  chlorine  did  not  allow 
5 


66  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


US  to  dispense  with  the  use  of  lyes  and  the  immersions 
in  the  acid  baths.  It  is  certain  that  the  same  thing 
ought  to  be  true  in  regard  to  rags,  and  that  it  is  essenftal 
to  proceed  in  the  same  manner.  Nevertheless  in  those 
manufactures  for  which  the  rotting  method  is  still  in 
use,  it  is  possible,  by  prudently  combining  this  process 
with  that  of  bleaching,  to  do  away  with  the  greater  part 
of  these  successive  immersions,  because  in  this  case  the 
coloring  matter  undergoes  a  commencement  of  decom- 
position, which  renders  it  much  more  easy  to  eliminate. 
A  single  boiling  in  lye,  two  baths  of  the  chloride,  and 
one  of  acidulated  water,^  generally  are  sufficient  to  bleach 
rags  and  even  ropes. 

"  The  advantages  of  bleaching  are  too  evident  to 
need  setting  forth :  it  cannot  be  pretended  that  it  occa- 
sions great  cost,  on  the  contrary,  it  would  be  easy  to 
show  that  it  is  economical  if  it  were  only  by  furnishing 
means  of  making  a  much  larger  quantity  of  fine  papers 
with  the  same  sort  of  rags  and  in  a  much  less  time. 

"  I  will  finish  this  article  by  inviting  paper  manufac- 
turers to  give  this  subject  more  study  than  they  have 
hitherto  done,  and  by  assuring  them  that  they  will  find 
themselves  amply  compensated  for  their  trouble." 

§  7.  Composition  of  the  Pulp. 

The  composition  of  the  pulp,  or  the  relative  proportion 
of  each  grade,  the  combination  of  which  is  to  supply  the 
refining  or  beating  engine,  is  one  of  the  most  delicate 
operations  of  paper-making.  It  particularly  concerns 
the  superintendent  of  the  mill,  who  alone  can  and  ought 
to  decide  in  the  matter. 

*  Loisel  directs  us  to  employ  three  kilogrammes  (6.61  lbs.  avoird.) 
of  sulphuric  acid  at  50°  to  two  hundred  litres  (44.02  galls.)  of  water. 


MANUFACTURE. 


6T 


Papers  are  usually  made  upon  orders  for  a  certain 
pattern,  and  it  is  important  to  impart  to  them  the  quali- 
ties required,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that  they 
are  not  always  compatible.  It  is  for  the  manufacturer 
to  appreciate  the  practical  value  of  these  conditions,  and 
to  then  regulate  the  general  work  of  the  mill  accordingly. 

Taking  a  certain  theoretical  composition  for  his  pulp, 
he  must  see  whether  the  price  to  which  the  paper  will 
come  is  not  too  high. 

The  superintendent  ought,  therefore,  to  have  in  his 
mind,  or  near  at  hand,  everything  necessary  for  his  in- 
formation ;  the  cost  of  the  raw  materials,  and  the  expense 
of  cutting,  boiling,  bleaching,  sizing,  and  coloring.  He 
should  also  see  whether  the  supply  will  allow  him  to 
employ  a  certain  grade  in  preference  to  another. 

When  these  various  points  have  been  settled,  he  must 
foresee  the  difficulties  that  may  be  met  with  in  making 
the  paper  by  machinery.  If  the  paper  is  to  be  glazed 
or  satined,  will  such  and  such  a  material  not  be  apt  to 
introduce  too  many  lumps  and  gravels  into  the  pulp,  and 
will  not  this  result  in  wearing  out  the  zincs  and  felts  too 
rapidly? 

It  is  in  the  matter  of  the  composition  of  pulps  that 
the  knowledge  of  the  manufacturer  is  displayed.  Before 
settling  the  question  he  must  indeed  have  gone  over  all 
those  involved  in  the  art  of  paper-making.  It  generally 
requires  but  a  few  minutes'  reflection  for  one  who  tho- 
roughly understands  the  capabilities  of  his  mill. 

"We  will  try  and  give  some  general  ideas  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

1st.  White  linen  and  cotton  rags  should  mainly  enter 
into  the  composition  of  white  papers. 

2d.  Foreign  paper  requires  new  wiry  materials,  giving 
it  a  crackle  and  great  toughness.    For  the  superior 


68  prJI;tical  guide  for  paper-making. 

qualities  linen  is  nsed ;  for  the  others  fine  thirds  and 
untarred  ropes,  well  boiled  and  bleached. 

3d.  Fine  demy  post  also  requires  the  use  of  rags  but 
little  worn  and  white  cottons;  for  the  inferior  kinds, 
clean  hems  and  seams,  fine  thirds,  and  bleached  cotton 
checks. 

4th.  The  more  elegant  printing  papers  particularly 
demand  well-worn  white  rags,  and  clean  white  cottons, 
and  sometimes,  a  slight  addition  of  unworn  material  to 
give  them  more  firmness. 

5th.  The  common  printing  papers  are  made  of  coarse 
thirds,  ropes,  and  especially  colored  cottons. 

6th.  Papers  for  engraving  need  a  larger  proportion  of 
cotton  to  render  them  softer  and  more  sensitive,  as  it  is 
called  among  engravers.  They  will  also  bear  a  larger 
proportion  of  kaolin;  but  this  substance  should,  not  be 
made  use  of  till  it  has  been  thoroughly  cleansed  of  the 
silicious  particles  it  almost  always  contains. 

7th.  For  colored  blotting  papers  clean  cotton  checks, 
either  red  or  blue,  are  used,  without  boiling  or  bleaching. 
The  coloring  matter  of  the  rags  is  sufficient  to  dye  the 
pulp.  Although  the  use  of  this  paper  is  limited,  it  is 
well  to  make  it  up  at  the  end  of  each  year  from  the  rags  * 
reserved  for  that  purpose. 

8th.  For  common  wrapping  papers  rags  of  the  coarsest 
kinds  are  employed,  pack-cloths,  tarred  ropes,  the  wast- 
ings  from  the  dusting  engines,  etc.  The  fine  qualities 
need  a  certain  amount  of  boiling  and  partial  bleaching, 
while  for  the  others,  the  rags  are  not  subjected  to  any 
chemical  preparation  whatever. 

At  the  present  day  there  enters  also  a  variable  pro- 
portion of  mineral  substances  into  the  composition  of 
almost  all  pulps,  such  as  kaolin,  sulphate  of  lime,  sulphate 
of  baryta,  etc. 


MANUFACTURE. 


69 


We  shall  have  a  few  words  to  say  on  this  subject  in 
the  chapters  on  sizing  and  coloring  matters. 

§  8.  Eefining  or  Beating. 

♦  The  foreman  of  the  refining  room  ought  to  pay  atten- 
tion to  see  that  each  lot  of  pulp  contains  the  grades  re- 
quired by  his  working  list  for  the  day,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  for  the  number  of  lots  of  stuff  he  is  ordered  to 
prepare.  The  assistants  bring  in  the  fixed  amount  of 
pulp  to  be  beaten  and  throw  it  into  the  tank. 

The  first  part  of  the  refining  process  is  accompanied 
by  washing,  either  by  means  of  strainers  or  washing 
drums,  or  by  both  these  arrangements  conjointly. 

If  the  pulp  contains  traces  of  chlorine,  it  is  well  to . 
facilitate  the  departure  of  this  substance  by  the  use  of 
the  antichlorine,  which  we  have  already  mentioned. 

When  the  pulp  has  arrived  at  such  a  degree  of  tenuity 
that  it  may  be  in  danger  of  passing  between  the  wires 
of  the  strainer,  this  is  closed,  and  the  washing  ceases. 
If  a  washing  drum  is  used  it  is  raised  to  prevent  it  from 
operating. 

The  workman,  having  raised  the  water  faucet,  gradu- 
ally lowers  the  cylinder  upon  the  plate,  and  stirs  vigor- 
ously. Little  by  little,  a  homogeneous  mass  is  obtained, 
having  entirely  lost  its  filamentous  appearance  which 
up  to  this  time  it  had  preserved. 

After  a  little  experience  the  fineness  of  the  pulp  may 
be  appreciated  by  the  touch.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
ascertain  this  fact  more  exactly  by  what  is  called  the 
proof.  For  this  purpose  a  few  grains  of  pulp  are  diluted 
with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  in  a  cylindrical  vessel 
made  of  copper,  zinc,  or  gutta  percha ;  and,  on  pouring 
this  off,  the  fibres  of  the  pulp  will  take  a  direction  paral- 


70  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


lei  to  that  of  the  current  of  water,  at  the  point  where  it 
falls  over,  and  thus  allow  us  to  ascertain  their  length. 

There  will  remain  quite  a  quantity  of  little  white 
points  or  lumps,  which  have  escaped  the  action  of  the 
cylinder.  To  make  these  disappear,  the  foreman  raises 
the  cylinder,  so  that  the  extremity  of  its  blades  approaches 
those  of  the  plate  as  nearly  as  possible  without  touching. 
This  is  called  softening.  The  lumps  disappear,  after 
having  been  thiis  triturated  in  their  passage  under  the 
cylinder  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 

The  operation  of  refining  must  be  well  managed ;  and 
it  should  only  be  intrusted  to  a  skilful  and  intelligent 
workman,  as  the  beauty  of  the  paper  depends  upon  it. 

When  the  beating  is  three-quarters  through,  the  sizing 
and  coloring  materials  are  thrown  into  the  vat;  and, 
while  the  pulp  is  finishing,  the  mixture  takes  place.  It 
is  well,  however,  to  assist  it  by  stirring. 

When  the  lot  is  finished  the  foreman  lifts  the  plug, 
and  the  pulp  runs  off,  through  large  copper  pipes,  into 
the  supply  vat  of  the  paper  machine. 

The  rinsing  finished,  the  plug  is  replaced,  and  a  new 
operation  may  be  commenced. 

.  The  duration  of  the  beating,  like  that  of  the  reduction 
to  half  stuff,  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  pulp, 
the  capacity  of  the  vat,  the  weight  of  the  cylinder,  the. 
velocity  of  its  rotations,  the  degree  to  which  its  blades 
and  those  of  the  plate  are  worn,  the  supply  of  water  for 
washing,  the  cleanness  and  fineness  of  the  wire-cloth  of 
the  strainers  and  washing  drums,  and,  lastly,  according 
to  the  skill  of  the  foreman. 

Too  limited  a  supply  of  beating  engines  obliges  many 
manufacturers  to  reduce  the  duration  of  this  process. 
This  want  of  working  stock  injures  the  quality  of  the 
paper,  which  gives  evidence  of  too  hasty  work.  From 


MANUFACTURE. 


71 


three  hours  and  a  half  to  four  hours  are  required  on  an 
average,  if  five  hours  can  be  given  to  it,  the  pulp  is 
softer  and  more  easily  v^orked  on  the  machine. 

We  shall  return  to  the  dimensions  and  mechanism  of 
the  rag  engines  while  treating  the  general  subject  of  the 
working  stock  of  a  paper-mill. 

Refining  is  also  accomplished  in  particular  machines, 
called  centrifugal  refiners. 

These  are  not  well  known  in  France,  but  in  America 
they  have  rendered  great  service.  As  is  always  the  case 
at  the  appearance  of  a  new  machine,  general  opinion  is 
very  much  divided. 

0 

§  9.  Sizing. 

Before  the  invention  of  paper  machines,  the  leaves- 
were  sizedkwith  gelatine  or  animal  size,  a  process  which 
is  still  followed  in  paper-making  by  hand.    This  method 
is  tedious,  and  at  all  times  unsuited  to  the  manufacture 
of  continuous  paper. 

The  first  attempts  at  pulp-sizing,  or  sizing  in  the 
beating  engine,  go  back  to  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, i 

M.  Braconnot,  in  analyzing  German  papers  sized  in 
the  pulp,  was  led  to  the  preparation  of  vegetable  size, 
which  he  obtained  through  the  precipitation  of  a  mixture 
of  an  alumino-resinous  soap  and  starch,  by  means  of 
alum. 

M.  d'Arcet,  after  several  experiments,  following  the 
instructions  of  M.  Braconnot,  originally  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing proportions  for  100  parts  of  dry  pulp  : — 

12.0  parts  of  starch, 

1.0  resin,  dissolved  in 

0.5        "  carbonate  of  soda, 

315.0       "  water. 


72  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


He  first  boiled  the  resinous  soap  in  water,  and  then 
added  the  starch  previously  dissolved  in  water. 

The  proportion  of  alum,  made  use  of  to  precipitate 
the  resin  was  such,  that  the  test-paper  would  no  longer 
indicate  the  presence  of  an  alkali  in  the  pulp.  As  the 
paper,  however,  lacked  the  firmness  which  was  imparted 
to  it  by  gelatine,  M.  d'Arcet  modified  the  quantities  to 
be  employed  as  follows : — 

100  parts  of  dry  pulp, 
4        "  starch, 
8  resinous  soap, 

8        "  alum. 

The  resinous  soap  is  obtained  from — 
4.80  parts  of  powdered  resin, 

2.22        "    crystals  of  soda,  at  80°  (Fr.  alkalimeter). 
100.00        "  water. 

The  gelatine  is  first  dissolved  in  hot  water.  *Theoreti- 
cally  speaking,  we  should  only  need  2.45  parts  of  alum 
to  precipitate  the  resin ;  but  the  waters,  which  are  almost 
always  calcareous,  neutralize  a  part  of  it. 

When  the  alum  is  poured  in  sulphate  of  soda  is  formed, 
and  the  molecules  t)f  resin  adhere  with  great  tenacity  to 
the  fibres  of  the  pulp. 

At  the  present  day,  resinous  size  is  made  thus : — 

Soda  at  80°  (alkalimeter)  is  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
and  is  rendered  caustic  by  the  addition  of  a  little  lime, 
which  takes  away  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  carbonated 
part  of  the  salt.  It  may  be  readily  understood  from  this, 
that  the  proportion  of  lime  ought  to  vary  according  to 
the  composition  of  the  soda  employed. 

The  liquid  is  shaken,  and  after  settling  is  decanted. 
The  part  remaining  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  then 
washed  to  carry  off  the  last  remaining  traces  of  soda. 
This  alkaline  solution  is  then  poured  into  a  great  wooden 


MANUFACTURE. 


73 


tub  heated  by  steam.  By  degrees  the  powdered  resin 
is  thrown  in,  and  after  continued  stirring  the  solution  is 
effected.  The  operation  lasts  from  two  to  three  hours. 
The  product  is  then  made  to  run  off  into  a  lower  re- 
ceiver. On  cooling,  this  resinous  soap  takes  a  more  or 
less  brown  appearance,  according  to  the  resin  employed. 

To  make  the  actual  size,  a  certain  quantity  of  this 
resinous  soap  is  thrown  into  a  tub  containing  water 
heated  by  steam ;  the  starch  previously  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  lukewarm  water  is  then  poured  into 
the  mixture. 

In  some  paper-mills  the  starch  and  kaolin  are  thrown 
in  alternately,  in  small  portions,  and  constantly  stirred 
to  obtain  a  perfectly  homogeneous  mixture. 

When  the  tub  is  full  it  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the 
preparation  then  has  the  appearance  of  a  slightly  yellow 
size,  with  a  more  or  less  stony  feel,  according  to  the 
amount  of  kaolin  which  has  been  added. 

There  are  generally  two  or  four  tubs :  two  are  used 
for  the  day's  work,  and  the  other  two  are  filled  for  the 
day  following. 

A  determined  quantity  of  this  size  is  poured  into  each 
lot  of  pulp  which  is  indicated  upon  the  day's  working 
list  of  the  foreman  of  the  beating  engines. 

Some  manufacturers  throw  the  powdered  alum  di- 
rectly into  the  engine.  It  is  much  better  to  dissolve  it 
at  a  temperature  from  60°  or  70°  C.  (140°  to  158°  Fahr.) 
and  to  draw  it  off  as  required  through  a  felt  which  re- 
tains all  impurities.  As  in  the  case  of  the  size,  volumes 
are  used  instead  of  weights,  which  amounts  to  the  same 
thing,  if  we  know  the  strength  of  the  liquid. 

Generally  equal  quantities  of  alum  and  lime  are  taken. 
Sometimes,  the  proportion  of  alum  is  increased  if  the 


74  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

water  is  calcareous,  or  if  it  is  desired  to  give  greater 
firmness  to  the  paper. 

The  quantities  employed  are  very  various.  M.  Planche  . 
recommends — 

16  parts  of  soda,  ^ 
8        "  lime 

to  dissolve — 

100  parts  of  resin, 
210       "  water. 

The  soda  must  be  in  excess  to  make  sure  that  the 
resin  is  dissolved. 

He  admitted  that  one  part  of  soda  at  80°  of  the  alka- 
limeter  dissolves  six  parts  of  resin,  and  that  one  part  of 
soda  rendered  caustic  by  0.5  part  of  lime  will  dissolve 
ten  parts  of  that  substance. 

When  alum  is  found  to  be  injurious  to  certain  colors, 

sulphate  of  zinc  in  the  proportion  of  one-third  the  amount 

of  alum  is  employed. 

The  composition  used  by  M.  Piette  is  as  follows : — 

• 

30  parts  of  soda  at  80°  (Fr.  alkalimeter), 
2      "       quick  lime, 
for  150  parts  of  resin. 

To  size  100  kilog.  (220.4:7  1bs.  avoird.)  of  paper  4  to  6 
kilog.  (8.81  to  13.22  lbs.)  of  resin,  and  as  much  alum 
will  be  required. 

M.  Payen  gives  the  following  proportion  in  his  indus- 
trial chemistry: — 

'75      parts  of  crystallized  soda, 
12.05      "  lime, 
375         "  water. 


MANUFACTURE. 


75* 


Then  are  added — 

150  parts  of  resin, 

150        "    water  resulting  from  washing  and 
boiling  by  steam. 

Having  thus  obtained  the  resinous  soap,  he  takes  one- 
tenth,  or  say — 

75  parts  of  resinous  soap, 
500        "    water  containing 
20        "  star(4h. 

For  100  kilog.  (220.47  lbs.  avoird.)  of  paper,  75  litres 
(19.80  gals.)  of  size,  and  4  kilog.  (8.81  lbs.)  of  alum  are 
employed. 

In  some  instances  the  mixed  size  is  returned  to — 
2  parts  of  gelatine, 

4        "    starch,  • 
2        "  resin, 
2        "  kaolin. 

In  certain  particular  cases,  and  for  common  papers, 
the  pulp  can  be  very  economically  sized  by  throwing  into 
the  rag  engine  perfectly  pulverized  resin.  The  resinous 
particles  adhere  to  th*e  fibres  of  the  pulp,  and  render  the 
paper  impermeable.  Although  this  method  should  not 
be  followed  as  a  regular  thing,  it  may  sometimes  offer 
advantages,  and  this  has  induced  us  to  mention  it. 

The  preparation  of  sizing  is  one  of  the  operations  of 
which  manufacturers  make  a  mystery,  each  one  imagin- 
ing that  the  proportions  he  employe  are  very  preferable 
to  those  made  use  of  by  his  colleagues.  But  we  repeat 
it,  these  proportions  should  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  rags  and  the  quality  of  the  paper. 

The  proportion  of  kaolin  is  very  variable,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  papers  and  the  composition  of  the 


76  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FO'R  PAPER-MAKING. 

pulps.  All  things  equal,  hard  rags  retain  a  larger  quan- 
tity than  the  soft.  In  papers  of  good  quality,  we  have 
found  from  10  to  18  per  cent,  and  more.  Certain  manu- 
facturers go  as  high  as  28  to  35  per  cent.,  but  the  paper 
then  loses  its  tenacity.  It  retains  a  certain  amount  of 
stiffness,  owing  to  the  starch;  but  yields  to  the  least 
effort,  when  once  rumpled. 

Kaolin,  introduced  into  papers  without  size  for  print- 
ing, undergoes  a  considerable  waste,  which  may  reach 
from  50  to  60  per  cent.  In  sized  papers,  the  result  of  a 
great  many  experiments  shows  that  30  per  cent,  may  be 
considered  as  the  mean,  when  at  least  the  proportions 
employed  do  not  surpass  the  ordinary  limits. 

Thus  for  100  parts  of  dry  pulp  for  printing  or  writing 
paper  we  may  take  as  a  basis : — 

30  to  50  parts  of  kaolin, 

20  to  30        "  starch, 

10  to  12        "  resin, 

And  as  much  alum. 
There  are  different  qualities  of  kaolin  ;  the  finest  and 
whitest  ought  therefore  to  be  used  for  fine  papers.  The 
kaolin  of  commerce  contains  from  ten.  to  fifteen  per  cent, 
of  water ;  it  is  well  therefore  from  time  to  time  to  ascer- 
tain its  degree  of  moisture. 

§  10.  Coloring  Matters. 

Whatever  care  may  have  been  taken  in  bleaching,  the 
pulps  always  retain*!  slight  yellow  tint  which  it  is  essen- 
tial to  remove,  if  we  wish  to  obtain  for  the  paper  a  more 
agreeable  appearance. 

The  addition  of  a  few  grammes  of  blue  and  red  takes 
off  the  unfinished  look.  The  use  of  blue  alone  would 
produce  a  greenish  tone  which  the  pink  serves  to  correct. 


MANUFACTURE. 


77 


It  is  difficult,  not  to  say  impossible,  to  indicate  by 
weight  the  exact  amount  of  coloring  matters  to  be  used 
for  100  kilog.  of  paper. 

This  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rags  which 
have  produced  the  pulp,  the  pureness  of  the  water,  and 
the  attention  paid  to  washing,  as  slight  traces  of  chlorine 
will  annihilate  a  part  of  the  effect  of  the  materials  em- 
ployed ;  and  finally  according  to  the  quality  of  the  paper 
which  it  is  proposed  to  make. 

The  safest  way,  is  to  operate  experimentally,  and  to 
try  various  mixtures  until  a  sufficient  approximation  to 
the  desired  color  is  obtained. 

A  practical  appreciation  of  this  is  soon,  however,  ac- 
quired if  one  has  an  eye  for  colors. 

The  blue,  most  universally  employed  for  white  paper 
at  the  present  day,  is  artificial  ultramarine,  known  in 
France  under  the  name  of  "  bleu  Guimet." 

Although  thk  coloring  matter  is  bought  ready  made, 
we  think  it  will  be  useful  to  enter  into  some  details  in 
regard  to  its  various  methods  of  manufacture. 

1st.  Method  followed  at  Nuremberg : — 

Heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace- — 

100  parts  of  sulphate  of  soda, 
33        "    powdered  wood  charcoal, 
10        "    slacked  lime. 

The  sulphide  of  sodium  obtained  is  run  into  metallic 
moulds. 

By  dissolving  it  in  water,  the  particles  of  carbon  not 
decomposed  are  precipitated;  the  decanted  liquid  is 
treated  with  sulphur  and  carried  to  the  boiling  point  to 
transform  the  monosulphide  into  a  polysulphide. 

This  polysulphide  is  then  evaporated  in  an  iron  cal- 
dron to  a  syrupy  consistence,  and  a  mixture  made  of — 


78  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

0.50  kilog.  (1.339  lbs.  troy)  of  this  polysulphide, 
1.25  kilog.  (3.348  lbs.  troy)  of  clay  well-washed  and 
free  from  sand, 

0.125  gramme  (1.93  grs.  troy^of  sulphate  of  peroxide 
of  iron  free  from  copper. 

A  sulphate  of  iron  is  formed,  and  the  product  takes 
on  a  green  tinge. 

After  having  evaporated  to  dryness  the  whole  is  pul- 
verized. 

This  powder,  submitted  to  a  brisk  roasting,  assumes 
different  tints  in  succession,  brown,  red,  green,  and  lastly 
blue. 

On  the  management  of  this  operation  depends  all  the 
success;  if  heated  too  much  the  ultramarine  is  decom- 
posed ;  if  not  enough,  a  part  of  the  material  doe5  not 
take  on  the  desired  blue  color. 

This  powder,  treated  with  water  to  remove  the  soluble 
parts,  is  again  roasted,  and  frequently  stirred  to  render 
the  blue  color  entirely  homogeneous. 

2.  Brunner's  Method, — The  following  mixture  is  cal- 
cined at  a  low  red  heat  in  a  covered  crucible: — 

70  parts  of  finely-powdered  sand, 
240        "    burnt  alum  (anhydrous), 

48        "    powdered  charcoal, 
144        "  sulphur, 

240        "    anhydrous  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  mass  when  cooled  is  treated  with  water,  the  resi- 
duum dried  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  its  own  weight 
of  sulphur  and  one  and  a  half  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  mixture  is  again  calcined,  and  treated  with  water. 
The  residuum,  well  washed  and  dried,  is  sifted  through 
very  fine  muslin. 

What  has  passed  through  the  sieve  is  spread  upon  an 


MANUFACTURE. 


79 


iron  plate,  over  a  bed  of  slowly-burning  sulphur.  This 
operation  is  repeated  until  the  color  is  quite  bright. 

To  color  the  pulp  with  ultramarine,  it  is  made  into  a 
thick  paste,  and  stirred ;  water  is  then  added.  Before 
pouring  this  into  the  engine,  it  is  filtered  through  flan- 
nel, which  retains  the  coarser  particles  resembling  grains 
of  sand,  and  which  produce  so  many  spots  in  the  paper. 
.  If  the  pulp  is  a  little  acid  from  the  addition  of  rather 
a  strong  solution  of  alum,  a  few  crystals  of  soda  are 
added  before  pouring  in  the  blue.  Acids  decompose 
ultramarine. 

Prussian  blue  (ferrocyanide  of  iron,  3FeCy,+2Fe2Cy3). 
This  coloring  matter  is  employed  for  common  papers. 

The  formation  of  this  material,  whatever  process  may 
be  adopted,  depends  upon  a  precipitation  of  a  salt  of  the 
peroxide  of  iron  by  the  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  (ferro- 
cyanide of  potassium  2KCy,FeCy  +  3H0).^ 
To  prepare  it  take — 

6  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron  (sulphate  of  the  sesquioxide 

Fe203,3l§03)  dissolved  in 
15  parts  of  water. 

In  another  vessel  dissolve — 

6  parts  of  yellow  prussiate  in 
15        "  water. 

After  mixing  these  two  solutions  add — 

20  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Finally  add  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  until  a 
handsome  blue  precipitate  is  obtained.  This  precipitate 
is  washed  with  pure  water  several  times. 

*  The  chemical  equation  for  the  formation  of  this  salt  is  3(2KCy, 
reCy)  +  2(Fe,033S03)+Aq  =  3reCy,2Fe,Cy3  +  6(KO,S03)  +  Aq. 
(Tr.) 


80 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


If  Prussian  blue  is  bought  in  the  calcined  condition, 
after  having  reduced  it  to  a  fine  sifted  powder,  add  for — 

3  parts  of  the  blue, 
2        "    hydrochloric  acid. 
It  is  then  washed  with  pure,  water  several  times,  and 
the  water  drawn  off  by  a  siphon. 

Pink  Red, 

The  materials  most  used  are  cochineal,  Pernambuco 
(Brazil)  wood,  and  carthamine  (safi'ron,  dyer's  saffron). 

The  Red  Shade. — There  are  several  methods  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  carmine  of  cochineal,  which  is  used 
for  fine  papers. 

First  process. — Boil  for  half  an  hour — . 
1,000  grammes  (2.679  lbs.  troy)  of  crude  cochineal, 
16       "       (247  grs!  troy)  of  soda  (alicante), 
39,000       «       (77,791  lbs.  troy)  of  water. 
Take  the  vessel  from  the  fire,  and  add — 
50  grammes  (772  grs.)  of  pure  alum,  * 
10       "      (154  grs.)  of  cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate  of 
^potassa). 

The  mixture,  when  stirred,  passes  from  violet  to  pink, 
and  finally  to  a  bright  red. 

After  the  liquid  is  decanted,  four  whites  of  eggs  well 
beaten  are  to  be  added;  and  if  the  carmine  does  not 
float' in  flakes  it  should  be  heated.  The  decanted  matter 
is  thrown  upon  a  cloth,  and  dried  at  from  30  to  35  de- 
grees (86°  to  95°  Fahr.). 

50  grammes  (772  grs.)  of  carmine  are  thus  obtained. 
The  decanted  liquid  is  then  brought  to'  this  boiling  point, 
and  four  other  whites  of  eggs  beaten  and  thrown  in.  25 
grammes  of  carmine  are  thus  obtained,  not  quite  so 
handsome  as  the  other,  and  a  little  more  granulated. 


MANUFACTURE. 


81 


The  residuum  of  the  cochineal,  after  its  carmine  is 
extracted,  serves  to  prepare  carmine  lakes,  which  can  be 
used  for  second-class  paper. 

It  is  sufficient  to  throw  into  a  decoction  of  this  resi- 
duum, a  solution  of  alum  and  some  grammes  of  chloride 
of  tin. 

The  alumina  of  the  liquid  is  precipitated  by  a  solution 
of  the  supercarbonate  of  soda  (bicarbonate  of  soda  NaO, 
2CO2). 

The  decoction,  left  to  itself  for  some  time,  enters  into 
fermentation,  and  produces  a  scarlet  matter  which  is 
converted  into  a  jelly  with  the  alumina. 

Second  process : — 

1000  grammes  (2.679  lbs.  troy)  of  crude  cochineal, 

20  litres  (4.40  gals.)  of  water  rendered  alkaline. 

This  liquid  should  be  decanted,  and  renewed  three 
times  so  as  to  have  60  litres  (13.20  gals.). 
Precipitate  with — 

830  grammes  (2.223  lbs.  troy)  of  crystallized  bichlo- 
ride of  tin.  The  product  is  filtered,  washed,  and  de- 
canted. 

Pernamhuco  Wood  {Brazil  Wood,  Ccesalpina  Echinata), 

It  should  be  bought  in  block,  because  it  not  unfre- 
quently  happens  that  chips  are  sold  which  have  been 
used  before ;  if  it  is  of  a  good  quality,  its  specific  gravity 
being  greater  than  that  of  water,  it  ought  not  to  float. 

Process. — First  wash  the  material  with  eight  or  ten 
times  its  Weight  of  water  at  35°  to  45°  (95°  to  113°F.) 
This  water  is  drained  off,  and  a  new  bath  prepared  of — 

1  part  of  the  wood, 
10  parts  of  water. 
6 


82  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


After  boiling  two  hours,  filter,  and  add  to  the  filtrate — 

0.25  parts  of  salt  of  tin  (protochloride  of  tin). 

By  rest  the  coloring  matter  is  precipitated.  The 
water  is  drained  off,  and  the  washing  continued  until 
the  liquid  is  no  longer  acid. 

By  this  first  boiling,  a  beautiful  red  coloring  matter 
is  obtained. 

After  pouring  into  the  caldron  a  new  quantity  of 
water,  rendered  alkaline  by  2  parts  of  soda  to  the  100 
of  water,  boil  again,  and  the  coloring  matter  is  once 
more  precipitated  with  salt  of  tin. 

By  this  operation  an  orange-brown  color  is  obtained. 

As  the  pink  color  is  less  brilliant  if  the  pulp  contains 
calcareous  salts,  it  is  important  to  precipitate  them  by  a 
corresponding  proportion  of  oxalic  acid. 

Carthamine  gives  the  handsomest  pink,  but  unfortu- 
nately it  is  not  durable;  it  answers,  however,  very  well 
for  certain  satined  papers,  intended  for  making  artificial 
flowers. 

On  1  part  of  washed  and  dried  carthamine  pour  10 
parts  of  water,  rendered  alkaline  by  1  part  of  crystals  of 
soda.  The  filtered  liquor  is  precipitated  with  acetic  or 
citric  acid  until  it  becomes  acid. 

Let  it  rest,  and  then  decant. 

The  violet  is  obtained  by  a  decoction  of  Campeachy 
wood  (logwood).^  Its  preparation  is  analogous  to  the 
process  we  have  just  given  for  Pernambuco  (Brazil) 
wood. 

Yellow, 

This  color  is  obtained  by  the  double  decomposition  of 

*  The  coloring  matter  of  logwood  is  hcematoxyline,  that  of  Brazil 
wood,  braziline. — Tr. 

.  .  # 


MANUFACTURE. 


83 


bichromate  of  potassa  and  siibacetate  of  lead.  A  pre- 
cipitate of  the  chromate  of  lead  of  a  bright  yellow  is 
formed. 

1000  parts  of  subacetate  of  lead, 
180    "     "  bichromate  of  potassa  or  red  chromate. 

By  varying  these  proportions  the  color  takes  an  orange 
or  a  bright  yellow  tint. 

By  forcing  the  chromate  the  tint  becomes  orange;  by 
forcing  the  acetate  the  tint  becomes  yellow. 

Buff. 

Dissolve 

1  part  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
8  parts  of  water. 

Add  a  solution  formed  of 

1  part  of  chloride  of  lime, 
10  parts  of  water. 

After  stirring,  soda  is  added  to  render  the  product 
alkaline. 

The  liquid  is  afterwards  decanted  from  the  deposit 
which  is  washed. 

Sometimes  it  is  sufficient  to  throw  into  the  rag  engine, 
For  light  buff:— 

5  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
3    "     "  salt  of  soda,  or 

2  "     "  chloride  of  lime. 

For  dark  buff:— 

16  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron, 

9    "     "  salt  of  soda,  or  , 

6    "      "  chloride  of  lime. 
Soda  tarnishes  the  papers  less  than  lime. 


84 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Green. 

Green  is  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow. 
The  relative  proportions  of  these  two  substances  deter- 
mine the  shade. 

Ultramarine  is  used  for  fine,  and  Prussian  blue  for 
common  papers. 

A  very  handsome  green  could  also  be  produced  by  a  salt 
of  arsenic ;  but  this  coloring  matter  being  poisonous,  its 
use  should  be  proscribed  so  far  as  its  application  to  paper- 
making.^ 

Brown. 

Brown  colors  are  obtained  from  the  employment  of 
umbers,  ochres,  etc. 

The  chloride  of  manganese  resulting  from  the  prepa- 
ration of  chlorine  gas  may  be  put  to  use.  After  being 
saturated  with  carbonate  of  soda  it  is  filtered.  The  pro- 
duct takes  a  brown  tint  by  the  addition  of  chloride  of 
lime. 

Dark  Gray. 

Grays  are  obtained  by  pouring  lampblack  into  the  rag 
engine  after  it  is  cleansed  from  grease  by  a  warm  dilute 
solution  of  soda  or  potas^a..  The  material  is  then  washed 
until  all  traces  of  the  alkali  have  disappeared. 

By  increasing  the  proportion  of  this  substance,  the  pulp 
becomes  darker. 

*  The  salt  of  arsenic  referred  to  is  probably  a  double  compound  of 
the  arsenite  and  acetate  of  copper,  known  commonly  as  Schweinfurth's 
green  or  Vienna  green.  It  is  as  poisonous  as  white  arsenic.  There 
is  also  an  arsenite  of  copper  (CuOjAsOg),  called  Scheele's  green. — Tr. 


MANUFACTURE. 


85 


This  color  may  be  also  obtained  from  the  gallate  of 
iron  by  boiling 

1  pint  of  nutgalls  (gallic  acid  C7H034-2HO), 

2  parts  of  sulphite  of  iron  (green  vitriol), 
10    "     "  water. 

Filtration  will  retain  the  insoluble  products  of  the  nut- 
galls  and  the  sulphide  of  iron. 

(The  following  extract  on  this  important  matter  of 
coloring  is  from  the  work  of  M.  L.  S.  Le  Normand,  from 
whom  we  have  already  quoted  on  the  subject  of  bleach- 
ing.—Tr.) 

Colored  Papers, 

However  well  the  pulp  may  have  been  bleached  to  the 
highest  point  that  chlorine  can  carry  the  operation,  how- 
ever fair  the  quality  of  the  rags  from  which  it  is  produced, 
notwithstanding  all  the  care  that  may  have  been  exer- 
cised in  its  fabrication,  the  resulting  paper  presents  a 
slight  yellow  tinge,  which  would  not  escape  the  most 
inexperienced  eye.  .  The  dead  white  which  this  paper 
presents  to  the  sight  is  unpleasant  when  compared  with 
that  to  which  there  is  given  a  slight  blue  tint  which 
takes  off  the  glare. 

Thus  after  being  bleached,  fine  washing,  although  very 
white,  undergoes  a  slight  blueing^  which  gives  it  a  more 
brilliant  appearance  and  renders  it  more  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  These  two  operations,  which  are  analogous,  have 
given  to  that  beautiful  paper  of  a  faint  blue  shade  the 
name  of  azured  paper,  and  the  operation  by  which  this 
is  obtained  is  called  blueing. 

In  paper-mills  also  different  colored  papers  are  manu- 
factured, not  after  the  manner  of  the  illuminators,  who 
merely  color  the  two  surfaces  with  the  same  shade  by 


86  .    PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


means  of  a  sponge  or  of  a  large  brush,  which  being  for- 
eign to  paper-making  will  not  concern  ns,  but  by  em- 
ploying pulps  colored  in  the  vat  or  the  engine,  which 
furnish  papers  dyed  the  same  color  throughout  their 
substance. 

There  are  then  two  distinct  and  separate  manners  by 
which  these  two  results  are  obtained,  which  we  shall  de- 
scribe the  one  after  the  other  in  two  distinct  and  sepa- 
rate paragraphs. 

1st.  Blueing. 

Formerly  the  only  process  known  for  blueing  paper 
was  the  employment  of  Prussian  blue,  or  of  indigo  pre- 
cipitated from  its  sulphate^  by  lime ;  but  Prussian  blue  is 
too  difficult  of  management  to  obtain  a  uniform  shade, 
besides  this  color  is  not  durable.  A  leaf  exposed  for  some 
time  to  the  light  soon  loses  its  tint,  and  the  paper  ap- 
pears mottled. 

Indigo  extracted  from  its  sulphate  gave  a  more  sub- 
stantial azure,  less  difficult  to  manage,  and  more  durable ; 
but  this  substance  was  superseded  by  oxide  of  cobalt 
(smalt,  azure  or  cobalt  blue),  as  soon  as  handsome  Eng- 
lish papers  blued  with  this  material  were  seen.  This 
oxide  gives  a  more  brilliant  and  especially  a  more  durable 
blue  than  any  other  material  yet  employed. 

The  English  papers  presented  a  great  defect ;  the  right 
side  of  the  sheet  was  of  a  very  beautiful  shade,  whereas 
the  opposite  side  was  deprived  of  it.  This  defect  pro- 
ceeded from  the  fact  that  the  English  had  not  learned 
how  to  use  this  dye.    They  threw  it  into  the  vat  which 

*  Indigo  blue  dissolved  in  fuming  sulphuric  acid  forms  a  chemical 
compound  known  as  sulphindigotic  acid;  no  other  liquid  will  dissolve 
it.— Tr. 


MANUFACTURE. 


87 


was  constantly  stirred.    This  blue  is  very  heavy,  its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  paper-pulp, 
so  that  when  the  vatman  has  filled  his  mould  and  shakei# 
it  as  usual,  the  blue  falls  to  the  lower  surface,  and  the 
superior  surface  is  deprived  of  it. 

M.  Merimee  has  indicated  the  means  of  employing  this 
material,  and,  at  the  same  time,  avoiding  the*  difficulties 
which  were  experienced  by  the  English. 

"  Cobalt  blue  is  mixed  with  starch,  and  thus  closely 
incorporated  with  that  substance  it  becomes  lighter,  and 
no  longer  falls  to  the  reverse  side  of  the  sheet." 

This  is  the  process  followed  by  M.  Canson  to  manu- 
facture the  paper  thus  blued,  which  he  presented  for 
examination  to  the  Societe  d'Encouragement.  The  in- 
structions of  the  commissioners  were  communicated  to  M. 
Canson  in  1815,  and  it  was  not  until  several  years  after 
that  he  displayed  his  papers  blued  on  both  faces  with 
cobalt  blue. 

We  would  have  given  the  process  of  the  manufacture  of 
this  blue,  which  is  not  a  secret,  if  it  could  be  of  any  ser- 
vice in  the  paper-mill;  but  this  operation  can  only  be 
conducted  with  advantage  in  establishments  solely  de- 
signed for  this  work.^  Cobalt  blue  is  abundantly  found 
in  the  market  already  prepared ;  there  are  several  quali- 
ties of  it,  and  the  paper-maker  should  choose  the  best, 
which  is  also  the  mdst  finely  pulverized.  It  is  known 
in  France  under  the  name  of  azur  des  quatre  feux  (azure 
of  the  four  fires).    Those  who  wish  to  understand  its 

*  The  following  is  the  general  principle  of  preparation  for  this  sub- 
stance. The  cobalt  ores  are  converted  into  oxide  of  cobalt  in  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace.  The  oxide  is  fused  in  clay  crucibles  with  sand 
and  carbonate  of  potassa,  producing  a  deep  blue  colored  glass.  This 
is  poured  into  cold  water  to  render  it  brittle,  and  then  reduced  to  an 
impalpable  powder,  which  is  the  coloring  matter  to  be  used. — Tr. 


88 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


manufacture  can  consult  Thenard's  Traite  de  Chimie,  vol. 
2,  p.  494,  edition  of  1824. 

*  There  have  been  sent  from  Paris  to  the  paper  manu- 
facturers, for  about  two  years  past,  small  samples  of  a 
powder  designated  by  the  name  of  azure,  of  a  very  beauti- 
ful shade  bordering  on  lilac,  which  has  appeared  to  us 
to  be  artificial  ultramarine  weakened  with  starch.  It  is 
employed  in  the  same  nianner  as  cobalt  blue. 

Of  Papers  Colored  in  the  Pulp, 

There  are  two  ways  of  manufacturing  papers  colored 
in  the  pulp,  which  we  will  describe  separately. 

1st.  For  blue  papers, — In  sorting,  all  the  blue  rags  of 
whatever  nature,  whether  fine  or  coarse,  are  set  aside; 
these  are  afterwards  separated  into  lots,  as  would  be 
done  with  the  whites.  The  finest  are  kept  for  handsome 
papers,  and  the  rest  for  the  commoner  kinds. 

These  rags  undergo  the  same  treatment  as  those 
intended  for  white  paper,  and  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  in  using  the  pulp  there  will  be  produced  a  white 
paper  varying  in  shade,  according  to  the  depth  of  the 
color  of  the  rags.  If  the  tint  is  too  deep,  more  or  less 
white  pulp  is  added  to  it  in  the  rag-engine,  which  is 
then  allowed  to  work  until  the  mixture  is  complete  and 
the  color  uniform.  « 

2d.  For  the  red,  called  rose  paper. — All  the  red  rags, 
whether  linen  or  cotton,  dyed  with  Turkey  red  (madder 
alizarine),  are  set  apart ;  they  are  treated  like  the  blue, 
and  a  red  pulp  is  obtained  which  gives  a  very  pretty 
rose  color  to  the  paper. 

Papers  are  also  made  of  every  color,  by  dyeing  the 
pulp  in  the  rag-engine.  They  are  stained  with  either 
vegetable  or  mineral  colors.    As  these  last  are  the  most 


MANUFACTURE. 


89 


brilliant  and  firmest,  we  shall  limit  ourselves  to  the 
receipts  for  their  production,  and  shall  only  mention 
the  vegetable  substances  from  which  the  dyes  may  be 
prepared. 

It  is  sufficient  to  be  acquainted  with  the  process  for 
obtaining  the  three  primitive  colors,  hlue^  yellow^  and 
red^  to  procure  all  tbe  others  to  which  hlack  is  added  to 
procure  the  various  shades. 

Blue. — We  have  mentioned  the  oxide  of  cobalt.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  choose  a  very  deeply-colored  quality, 
and  the  desired  shade  may  be  easily  arrived  at. 

Yellow. — (The  coloring  matter  here  recommended  is 
the  yellow  chromate  of  lead,  the  preparation  of  which 
has  already  been  fully  described  in  the  text. — Tr.) 

Red. — The  trit oxide  of  iro7i,  from  which  Russia?!  red 
is  made,  gives  substantial  colors,  which,  however,  border 
on  brown ;  nevertheless,  when  it  is  prepared  with  care 
and  well  washed,  the  shade  is  not  disagreeable,  and 
closely  approximates  pure  red. 

Vermilion,  known  under  the  name  of  Chinese  vermi- 
lion,  and  brought  to  great  perfection  in  Paris,  furnishes 
a  very  beautiful  red. 

Vegetable  substances  ought  not  to  be  employed  iii 
paper-making  to  dye  the  pulp,  except  in  cases  where 
the  coloring  matters  furnished  by  the  mineral  substances 
we  have  spoken  of  would  not  give  pure  shades,  or  when 
such  could  not  be  obtained  by  their  aid.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  vegetable  colors  are  unstable,  that  air 
and  light  decompose  them  easily,  and  that  sufficient 
solidity  could  not  be  given  to  those  serving  to  dye  the 
pulps  employed  for  making  paper  used  to  cover  pam- 
phlets or  books  bound  in  boards.  We  shall  confine  our- 
selves to  the  description  of  the  processes  to  be  employed 
to  procure  the  most  brilliant  reds^  hlack  which  would  be 


90  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


difficult  to  obtain  pure  through  the  agency  of  mineral 
substances,  and  the  very  deep  and  beautiful  indigo  blue, 
which  may  take  the  place  of  the  more  costly  oaiide  of 
cobalt. 

Red. — Several  American  woods  afford  a  red  coloring 
matter.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  generic  name 
of  Brazil  wood ;  that  of  Pernambuco.is  the  most  esteemed, 
but  is  very  rare;  Linneeus  designates  it  by  the  name 
Ccesalpina  Crista. 

Boiling  water  extracts  all  the  coloring  matter  from 
Brazil  woods.  The  decoction  of  Pernambuco  wood  is  of 
a  very  beautiful  red ;  that  of  the  other  woods  which  are 
substituted  for  it  is  of  a  yellow  approaching  more  or  less 
to  fawn  color,  which  for  a  long  time,  to  the  despair  of 
the  dyers,  resisted  every  investigation  of  the  chemists 
who  devote  themselves  to  this  important  branch  of  our 
national  industry.  A  German  chemist  has  solved  the 
problem. 

.  In  No.  209  (Nov.  1821)  of  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe 
d^ Encouragement  pour  VIndiistrie  nationale  may  be 
found  a  simple  and  easy  method  of  eliminating  the 
tawny  color  from  the  baths  of  the  inferior  qualities  of 
Brazil  woods,  such  as  those  of  St.  Martha,  Aniola,  Nica- 
ragua, Siam,  Japan,  etc.,  and  to  substitute  them  with 
assured  success  for  true  Pernambuco  wood. 

This  is  the  manner  in  which  M.  Dingier,  the  author 
of  this  method,  advises  us  to  proceed: — 

"  The  wood  having  been  rasped  or  scraped  as  usual, 
all  the  coloring  matter  is  extracted  from  it,  either  by 
boiling  or  by  the  action  of  steam.  The  decoction  thus 
obtained  is  evaporated  until,  for  instance,  there  only 
remain  for  two  parts  of  wood,  six  or  seven  parts  of 
liquid.    This  liquid  is  cooled,  and  from  twelve  to  eigh- 


MANUFACTURE. 


91 


teen  hours  afterwards  one  part  of  skimmed  milk  is 
poured  in. 

"  After  being  well  stirred,  this  mixture  is  boiled  for 
several  minutes,  and  then  passed  through  a  very  fine 
piece  of  flannel.  The  tawny  pigment  remains  upon 
the  strainer  with  the  caseous  matter  to  which  it  attaches 
itself,  while  the  red  coloring  matter  passes  through  in  a 
state  of  great  purity,  and  without  suffering  the  slightest 
diminution. 

"  If  it  is  desired  to  use  this  liquid  as  a  red  dye,  it  is 
diluted  with  a  sufficient  .quantity  of  pure  water,  and 
then  employed  for  coloring.  A  solution  of  salt  of  tin 
or  sulphate  of  alumina  thrown  in  small  quantities  into 
the  bath,  enlivens  this  red  in  an  astonishing  manner." 

Madder  red. — As  soon  as  I  had  heard  of  this  process 
of  M.  Dingier,  which  I  had  put  in  practice  and  which 
succeeded  with  me  perfectly,  I  conceived  that  it  might 
be  applied  to  the  pigment  of  madder,  which  it  is  well 
known  is  always  impregnated  with  a  fawn  color  injuri- 
ous to  the  pureness  of  the  red  this  substance  is  capable 
of  furnishing.  I  spoke  of  it  to  the  late  Vitalis  whose 
work  was  in  press ;  he  told  me  that  the  same  idea  had 
occurred  to  him,  and  showed  me  in  the  proofs  which  he 
had  retained  that  he  had  noted  it  without  trying  the  ex- 
periment. I  did  try  it,  succeeded  entirely,  and  showed 
him  the  result.    This  madder  red  is  very  permanent. 

Indigo  blue. — The  pulps  might  be  dyed  directly  with 
indigo  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  by  the  action  of  a  mill, 
as  is  done  in  dyeing  houses;  but  it  is  not  carried  to  a 
sufficient  degree  of  comminution  to  be  economically 
or  successfully  employed.  For  this  purpose  a  sulphate 
of  this  substance  should  be  formed,  and  when  perfectly 
dissolved,  the  sulphuric  acid  is  removed  by  lime.  The 
following  is  the  best  process  known  at  present. 


92 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


It  consists  in  pouring  gradually  four  parts  of  very  con- 
centrated (fuming)  sulphuric  acid  upon  one  part  of 
finely-powdered  indigo,  and  dissolving  the  powder  in 
the  acid,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  paste  perfectly  homoge- 
neous. This  is  heated  for  some  hours  in  a  glass  vessel, 
over  either  a  sand  or  water-bath,  at  a  temperature  of 
25  to  30  degrees  Heaumur  (88.25°  to  99.50°  F.).  It  is 
then  allowed  to  become  perfectly  cool. 

"When  the  mass  is  cool,  eight  parts  of  water  in  which 
four  parts  of  quicklime  have  been  dissolved  are  gradu- 
ally poured  upon  it.  The  water  is  poured  on  in  small 
quantities,  to  prevent  the  glass  from  being  broken  by 
the  great  heat  which  is  evolved,  and  in  order  not  to 
cause  too  violent  an  effervescence.  This  is  stirred  all 
the  while,  and  then  allowed  to  rest  24  hours.  Sulphate 
of  lime  is  formed  and  precipitated,  and  the  supernatant 
liquid  contains  the  pure  indigo  in  a  state  of  extremely 
minute  subdivision ;  this  liquid  is  decanted  and  used  for 
dyeing.  It  can  be  diluted  with  water  until  it  reaches 
the  desired  shade  of  blue. 

Black. — The  pulp  is  very  seldom  dyed  black ;  but  by- 
weakening  pure  black,  that  is,  by  diluting  it  with  more 
or  less  water,  different  shades  of  gray  are  obtained,  which 
added  to  colors  darkens  them  so  -as  to  enable  us  to  pro- 
duce any  given  shade. 

The  illuminators  mix  lampblack  freed  from  its  greasy 
or  oily  particles  by  repeated  washing  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda  or  potassa,  until  the  black  is  precipitated. 
The  alkali  forms  a  soap  by  taking  up  the  greasy  matters. 
The  whole  is  washed  with  pure  water  until  the  water 
runs  off  clear,  and  then  is  allowed  to  rest.  The  liquid  is 
decanted,  and  the  black  thus  purified  is  mixed  with  the 
sizing  in  the  vat  or  the  rag-engine. 

By  mingling  the  colors  called  primitive,  two  by  two. 


MANUFACTURE. 


93 


three  by  three,  or  four  by  four,  and  in  different  propor- 
tions, in  the  same  manner  as  the  painter  mixes  them 
upon  his  pallet,  we  obtain  all  the  colors  and  all  the  shades 
that  nature  furnishes. 

The  mixture  of  Hue  and  red  produces  purple,  violet, 
lilac,  pansy,  amaranth,  prune,  dove-color,  mauve,  peach  ^ 
blossom,  carnation  pink,  and  a  great  number  of  other 
shades,  which  depend  upon  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
two  colors,  the  preponderance  of  the  blue  over  the  red 
or  the  red  over  the  blue,  and  lastly  on  some  peculiar 
condition  of  the  operation. 

Blue  and  yelloio  mixed  give  green.  There  are  few 
colors  of  which  there  are  so  many  various  shades  as 
green.  The  principal  ones  are  sap  green,  pea  green, 
grass  green,  meadow  green,  laurel  green,  leaf  green,  sea 
green,  parrot  green,  cabbage  green,  apple  green,  nut 
green,  bottle  green,  duck  green,  etc. 

It  may  be  readily  anticipated  that  greens  are  so  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  their  base  of  blue,  that  this  needs 
to  be  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  the  green  to  be  pro- 
duced, and  thus  it  will  require  a  deep  blue  for  duck 
green;  a  sky  blue  for  parrot  green;  a  light  blue  for  apple 
and  sea  green,  and  a  still  lighter  blue  for  sap  green. 

Blue^  gray^  3Xid  yellow,  when  mixed,  produce  olive, 
•  The  shades  of  olive  are  greenish  or  yellowish-grays ; 
they  require,  therefore,  that  the  gray  which  forms  their 
base  should  incline  more  or  less  towards  blue.  The  colors 
must  be  mixed  in  suitable  proportions  as  the  eye  and  ex- 
perience may  direct. 

We  distinguish  two  principal  shaj^es  of  olive,  viz., 
green  olive  and  brown  or  rotten  olive  These  two  are  of 
entirely  different  tints. 

Mixture  of  red  and  yellow.  The  colors  resulting  from 
this  combination  are  very  numerous.   However,  the  tone 


94  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


of  these  shades  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  red  or 
yellowf  which  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  color.  The 
principal  color  thus  produced  is  orange ;  but  there  are 
numberless  others  depending  upon  the  proportions  of  red 
or  yellow  employed.  Such  are  fawri^  flame^  pomegranate^ 
nasturtium^  orange^  jonquil^  gold,  buf,  light  coffee,  and 
chocolate,  cinnamon,  tobacco,  chestnut^  marigold,  coquelicot, 
and  brick  colors,  etc. 

Black,  or  rather  gra^,  only  serves  to  darken  certain 
colors,  as  we  have  exemplified  in  the  case  of  olives.  The 
workman,  if  somewhat  intelligent,  will  easily  judge  when 
he  needs  gray  to  darken  a  color,  in  order  to  attain  the 
shade  which  he  is  required  to  produce. 

To  employ  these  colors  we  may  pour  the  colored  bath 
into  the  vat  with  a  solution  of  alum ;  nevertheless  it  will 
be  better,  when  the  pulp  has  been  sufficiently  worked  in 
the  rag-engine,  to  close  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the 
water,  and  then  turn  into  it  the  coloring  bath  with  the 
required  proportion  of  alum.  In  a  short  time  the  pulp 
becomes  uniformly  dyed  by  the  action  of  the  cylinder, 
which  facilitates  the  union  of  the  finely-divided  particles 
of  the  pulp  with  those  of  the  coloring  matter. 

The  colors  we  have  just  gone  over  may  be  considered 
in  the  light  of  fine  materials,  only  to  be  used  in  the  pre-' 
paration  of  handsome  papers  made  from  choice  pulp. 
The  preparation  of  coloring  matters  gives  considerable 
trouble  and  requires  a  degree  of  care  which  would  not 
be  repaid  in  the  manufacture  of  common  paper.  For  the 
coarsest  of  these,  used  for  packing  common  substances, 
but  which  it  is  ^ill  desirable  to  color,  other  processes 
are  employed.  To  accomplish  this,  yellow,  red,  or  brown 
ochres  are  used.  They  should  be  previously  soaked  some 
time  in  water,  and  then  carefully  washed  to  remove  the 
sand  and  other  refuse  matters,  and  leave  the  finer  parts 


MANUFACTURE. 


95 


for  use.  This  process  is  too  well  understood  for  us  to 
stop  to  describe  it. 

The  custom  is  still  retained  at  the  sugar  refinery  of 
Bordeaux,  and  perhaps  elsewhere,  of  coloring  the  paper 
employed  to  wrap  the  sugar  loaves  of  a  dark  blue.  So 
far  this  dye  has  been  made  of  prepared  archil.^  A  de- 
coction of  Campeachy  or  logwood  has  for  some  years 
been  substituted  which  has  the  property  of  assuming  a 
violet  color  on  the  addition  of  alum.  But  in  order  to 
imitate  the  reddish  blue  of  the  archil  a  solution  of  Brazil 
wood  is  combined  with  it.   This  process  is  as  follows 

Boil  for  one  hour  ten  parts  of  logwood,  powdered  or 
in  chips,  and  add  a  half  pound  of  Brazil  wood,  also  in  pow- 
der or  in  chips ;  boil  for  half  an  hour  after  having  thrown 
in  half  a  pound  of  powdered  verdigris  (basic  acetate  of 
copper  CuO,A  +  HO).  Stir  well,  and  finally  mix  with  it 
half  a  pound  of  powdered  alum.  When  the  solution  is 
completed  the  dye  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  then  thrown 
into  the  vat,  well  stirred,  and  the  paper- liiaking  may  be 
begun  at  once. 

We  think  it  right  to  repeat  and  insist  on  what  we 
have  already  said  upon  the  subject  of  Prussian  blue. 
Manufacturers  should  renounce  its  use,  either  for  blue- 
ing or  dyeing  their  papers.  This  substance  should  not 
be  allowed  in  the  mill,  it  is  not  permanent;  the  atmos- 
phere turns  it  gray,  though  so  brilliant  when  fresh,  and 
the  feeblest  alkali  will  discolor  it  instantaneously. 

*  Several  species  of  lichen,  growing  in  England  and  France,  con- 
taining coloring  principles  called  orcine  and  erythrine,  which  take  a 
handsome  purple  color  when  acted  on  by  ammonia.  For  this  purpose 
the  lichens  are  allowed  to  putrefy  in  urine,  and  are  then  made  into  a 
paste  of  a  red  or  violet  color.  When  lime  is  added  this  color  becomes 
blue.  This  substance  is  then  called  litmus,  and  is  commonly  used  for 
test  paper,  as  it  is  again  reduced  by  acids. — Tr.  " 


96  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


We  will  not  finish  these  remarks  without  saying  to 
manufacturers  that  they  ought  never  to  make  papers 
dyed  in  the  pulp  during  winter.  This  was  pointed  out 
to  us  by  M.  Canson  when  we  visited  his  beautiful  paper- 
mill  at  Vidalon-les-Annonay,  in  the  month  of  September, 
1828.  He  was  then  manufacturing  paper  dyed  in  the 
pulp ;  one  of  his  relations,  who  was  accompanying  me, 
asked  him  why  he  did  not  reserve  this  work  for  winter, 
saying  that  summer  had  always  appeared  to  him  most 
favorable  for  white  paper.  "That  is  true,"  answered 
he,  "but  I  have  found  by  experience  that  in  winter 
the  colors  are  very  much  weaker." 

§  11.  The  Work  of  the  Paper-Machine. 

The  pulp,  on  leaving  the  refining  or  beating  cylinders, 
is  conveyed  into  the  great  reservoirs  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  paper-machine. 

When  the  workman  wishes  to  set  the  machine  in 
operation,  he  opens  the  pulp  and  water  faucets  at  the 
same  time,  to  make  the  mean  density  of  the  mixture  cor- 
respond with  the  proposed  thickness  of  the  paper. 

In  passing  the  sand  boxes,  the  heaviest  particles 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  are  arrested  in  their  progress  by 
the  inclined  blade ;  the  lighter  ones  are  conveyed  to  the 
strainers,  or  knotters,  which  hold  back  almost  all  the 
lumps  or  knots  which  have  escaped  the  softening  pro- 
cess.^' 

*  Mr.  Richard  Herring,  in  his  work  on  Paper  and  Paper-making, 
observes,  that  he  has  found  from  repeated  examinations  of  these  lumps 
retained  upon  the  knotter,  that  they  consist  to  a  great  extent  of  India- 
rubber,  proceeding  from  the  bits  of  ornamental  braid,  etc. ,  from  which 
the  rags  have  not  been  entirely  freed. — Tr. 


MANUFACTURE. 


97 


The  purified  pulp  is  finally  poured  out  upon  the  wire 
cloth,  which  we  call  the  table  of  manufacture. 

This  endless  web  has  a  double  forward  and  oscillating 
motion.;  the  last  communicated  by  an  eccentric. 

As  the  web  advances,  the  drainage  is  effected;  the 
pulpclots,  after  passing  the  suction  boxes,  acquire 
sufficient  consistence  to  undergo  the  action  of  the  first 
wet  press  roller.- 

At  this  time  the  sheet  (it  may  be  now  properly  so 
named)  leaves  the  wire  gauze,  and  is  carried  off  by  con- 
tinuous felts  under  the  other  wet  press  and  drying  cylin- 
ders, which  bring  it  into  the  condition  of  perfectly  dry 
paper.  On  leaving  the  last  drying  roller,  the  sheet  is 
generally  cut  lengthways  into  parallel  bands  by  circular 
cutters,  and  rolled  off  upon  reels. 

The  paper  is  then  cut,  at  stated  intervals,  into  a  series 
of  superimposed  bands,  which  correspond  in  length  to 
the  breadth  of  the  reel.  These  are  cut  transversely,  by 
means  of  especial  blades,  according  to  the  required  form. 

When  the  working  of  a  paper  machine  is  first  exa- 
mined, it  seems  as  if  the  operation  was  self-conducting, 
and  would  require  no  care.  But  as  we  gradually  become 
familiar  with  the  different  apparatus  which  compose  this 
machiue,  this  confidence  disappears,  and  we  become 
aware  that  continual  attention  and  great  skill  are  re- 
quired on  the  pai't  of  the  workman,  in  order  successfully 
to  accomplish  this  most  important  part  of  the  manufac- 
ture. 

The  first  condition  to  be  fulfilled  is  to  make  the  paper 
correspond  in  weight  to  that  indicated  on  the  foreman's 
list.  To  accomplish  this,  the  workman  takes  a  piece  of 
the  paper,  as  it  leaves  the  last  drying  cylinder,  and  cut. 
ting  it  into  the  required  form,  weighs  it.  If  the  weight 
is  too  great,  he  closes  the  pulp  faucet  a  little,  and  if  the 
7  ' 


98  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


paper  is  not  heavy  enough,  he  either  shuts  off  the  addi- 
tional water  somewhat,  or  lets  in  a  greater  amount  of 
pulp.  He  does  one  or  the  other,  as  the  rapidity  of 
motion  of  the  machine  may  require. 

If  the  paper  is  crushed  under  the  first  wet  press,  there 
are  several  means  of  remedying  it.  Less  water  is  added 
to  the  pulp,  and  the  rate  of  motion  of  the  machine  is 
changed.  If  these  means  are  insufficient,  we  examine 
whether  it  will  be  most  advantageous  to  modify  the  com- 
position of  the  pulp,  or  to  replace  the  wire  cloth  by  one 
of  a  lower  number. 

In  some  instances  it  will  be  well  to  try  heating  the 
pulp,  which  facilitates  its  drainage. 

After  first  diminishing  the  pressure  of  the  rollers,  it 
should  also  be  ascertained  whether  this  crushing  does 
not  proceed  from  some  derangement  in  the  working  of 
the  air-pumps,  and  their  velocity  may  be  increased. 

The  slits  of  the  knotter  should  be  made  to  correspond 
in  their  size  with  the  kind  of  paper  to  be  made.  If  the 
pulp  passes  with  difficulty,  this  may  proceed  from  in- 
complete beating  or  softening.  The  knots  obstruct  the 
slits,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  clean  them  frequently, 
either  with  the  brush  or  the  rake.  When  this  engorge- 
ment is  complete,  it  is  sometimes  indispensable  that  the 
machine  should  be  stopped  in  order  to  clear  the  knotter. 

The  workman  should  watch  carefully  to  see .  that  the 
felts  are  kept  tense,  and  that  the  web  of  paper  be  not 
too  much  stretched  in  passing  over  the  drying  cylinders, 
as  this  might  occasion  a  break  in  the  paper,  or,  at  any 
rate,  diminish  its  strength  by  the  excessive  tension  which 
the  filaments  would  undergo. 

Pulp,  containing  too  great  a  proportion  of  crude  ma- 
terial or  rags  but  little  worn,  is  hard  to  drain ;  the  paper 
creases,  and  is  more  or  less  transparent.    It  is  proper  in 


MANUFACTURE. 


99 


this  case  to  augment  the  amount  of  well  worn  cottons 
and  linens. 

The  essential  condition  of  success  with  the  machine 
is  that  all  the  rollers  should  be  exactly  parallel  with  each 
other,  so  that  the  paper  be  drawn  uniformly  through- 
out its  whole  length,  an(^ot  wrinkle. 

This  is  still  more  important  when  a  new  wire  cloth  is 
to  be  put  on  the  machine,  as  it  may  be  ruined  in  a  few 
hours  by  a  lack  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the  workman. 

If  the  first  drying  cylinders  are  too  hot,  the  paper  is 
too  quickly  dried,  and  shrinks  and  wrinkles  the  more ; 
whereas  a  graduated  drying  will  give  a  finer  grain  and 
smoother  paper,  which  is  more  easily  finished. 

Before  each  operation  of  the  machine,  the  workman 
should  always  work  it  empty  for  a  little  while,  in  order 
to  see  that  all  the  parts  are  in  order.  He  should  also 
frequently  examine  the  spindles  of  the  rollers,  and  see 
that  they  do  not  become  heated. 

In  some  few  mills  the  paper  is  satined  as  it  leaves  the 
machine.  The  apparatus  employed  up  to  the  present 
time  to  attain  this  object,  which  would  be  very  economi- 
cal, have  not,  ho\vever,  worked  well  enough  for  us  to  re- 
commend their  use.  We  shall  say  a  few  words  in  regard 
to  these  machines  in  treating  the  general  subject  of  the 
stock  of  a  paper-mill. 

§  12.  Finishing. 

.    The  finish  to  be  given  to  the  paper  varies  according 
to  its  quality,  or  the  uses  for  which  it  is  intended. 
The  common  wrapping,  writing,  and  printing  papers, 
,  on  leaving  the  reel  of  the  machine,  are  cut  into  form ; 
slightly  looked  over  to  remove  the  few  torn  sheets  which 


100 


PR-ACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER- MAKING. 


the  piles  might  contain ;  pressed  once  or  twice,  and  then 
put  up  into  reams  and  packages. 

Fine  papers  undergo  a  series  of  operations,  such  as 
reviewing,  sorting,  satining,  and  glazing,  before  leaving 
the  mill.  ^ 

The  women  employed  in  tms  work  of  reviewing  care- 
fully examine  the  paper  on  both  sides,  and  remove  im- 
purities, such  as  gravel,  shreds,  lunjps,  or  knots,  with 
an  eraser,  and  with  India-rubber  the  spots  that  may  be 
expected  to  disappear. 

This  work  requires  practised  hands  ;  for,  by  using  an 
eraser  carelessly,  they  run  great  risk  of  piercing  the 
paper,  or  at  least  destroying  the  effect  of  the  size  in  that 
spot.  This  defect  should  be  always  avoided,  especially 
in  writing  paper. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  watch  attentively  the  re- 
fining and  straining  of  the  pulp,  to  diminish  as  much  as 
possible  the  occurrence  of  knots  in  the  paper. 

Generally  four  or  five  lots  are  made  in  reviewing  the 
sheets: —  ^ 

1st.  Good  sheets. 

2d.  Those  slightly  knotted  and  wrinkled. 
3d.  Those  torn  at  one  end,  but  available  for  a  smaller 
size. 

4th.  Waste  sheets. 

The  foreman  of  the  finishing  room  should  see  that  the 
work  is  done  properly,  and  should  ascertain  the  causes 
of  waste,  whether  proceeding  from  the  manufacture  or 
from  the  woman's  work. 

After  this  review,  the  papers  undergo  the  operation 
of  satining,  which  has  for  its  object  to  render  the 
surfaces  soft  and  smooth  to  the  touch. 

The  oldest  and  most  commonly  used  apparatus  is  the 
smoothing  or  rolling  press,  consisting  of  two  polished 


MANUFACTURE. 


101 


cast  iron  cylinders,  between  which  a  series  of  superim- 
posed plates  are  passed,  containing- between  them  the 
leaves  of  paper. 

These  plates  are  of  steel,  copper,  or  zinc ;  this  last 
named  metal  being  preferred  from  motives  of  economy, 
although  it  is  open  to  the  objection  of  somewhat  black- 
ening the  paper. 

In  some  mills  they  still  smooth  the  paper  by  means 
of  polished  boards,  such  as  are  used  by  printers  to  remove 
the  depressions  made  by  the  type  during  the  process  of 
printing. 

In  passing  between  the  rollers,  the  paper  undergoes 
a  strong  pressure,  the  grain  is  crushed,  and  the  surface, 
from  being  ridged,  becomes  smooth. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  it  is  important  that  the. 
paper  should  not  contain  grains  of  sand  or  knots  which 
would  mark  the  zinc,  and  render  them  very  soon  unfit 
for  service.  They  then  have  to  be  smoothed  again  to 
give  them  back  their  original  polish* 

The  finish  depends  upon  the  number  of  times  the 
packages  pass  under  the  rollers.  For  ordinary  papers 
from  two  to  four  times  are  sufficient. 

When  it  is  desired  to  glaze  the  papers  after  having 
rolled  them  four  times,  they  are  placed  between  fresh 
zincs,  or  the  same  in  the  inverse  order,  and  the  rolling 
operation  is  repeated. 

If,  at  the  time  of  the  first  passage  under  the  rollers 
the  pressure  is  too  strong,  the  filaments  will  be  crushed 
and  lose  a  great  part  of  their  resisting  .power. 

For  the  more  elegant  papers,  it  is  therefore  important 
to  have  a  medium  pressure,  and  even  to  let  the  papers 
remain  piled  up  for  24  hours  before  subjecting  them  to 
the  rolling  press  a  second  time. 


102  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


By  repeating  this  operation  two,  three,  and  four  times, 
a  superior  product  is  obtained. 

In  packing  the  paper,  the  leaves  should  be  placed 
evenly  over  each  other,  or  else  marks  will  be  visible  on 
the  side  of  the  sheets  indicating  an  unequal  pressure. 

In  order  'to  avoid  this  almost  inevitable  defect,  it  is 
indispensable  to  recut  all  fine  papers,  notwithstanding 
the  waste  thus  occasioned. 

The  thickness  of  the  packages  varies  according  to  the 
thickness  of  the  paper  and  the  zincs  and  the  distance 
apart  of  the  rollers. 

The  package  contains  from  20  to  35  sheets,  and  con- 
sequently from  21  to  36  plates  of  zinc. 

Satining  brings  out  the  defects  of  badly  prepared  size. 
The  grains  of  resin  remaining  undissolved  by  the  alkali, 
are  crushed  and  appear  as  transparent  yellow  spots  when 
the  leaf  is  held  up  to  the  light. 

The  work  of  a  satining  apparatus  requires  quite  a 
large  number  of  hands;  three  or  four  gangs  of  three 
persons  besides  one  or  two  workmen  to  present  the 
packages.  One  will  be  sufficient,  if  the  rollers  work 
in  both  directions  so  as  to  return  the  package  when  re- 
versed. 

Generally,  a  child  places  and  removes  the  sheets  of 
paper,  and  a  workman  lays  on  the  zinc  plate.  Some- 
times this  work  is  confided  to  a  woman,  but  a  man  is 
indispensable  for  the  larger  sizes. 

Calenders,  or  three  cylindrical  presses,  are  also  used 
to  satin  the  leaves,  the  middle  one  being  of  paper  and 
the  other  two  of  metal.  This  apparatus  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  soften  paper  in  rolls.  The  paper  is  wound 
upon  rollers  placed  at  the  head  of  the  callender,  and 
passes  first  between  the  upper  and  middle  cylinder,  and 
then  between  the  middle  and  lower  ones. 


MANUFACTURE. 


103 


This  smoothing  in  rolls,  especially  when  the  paper  is 
very  wide,  presents  some  difficulties.  It  is  necessary 
that  there  should  be  a  uniform  pressure  upon  every 
point  of  contact,  otherwise  the  paper  will  be  creased  and 
a  considerable  loss  ensue. 

This  accident  is  less  to  be  apprehended  when  the 
paper  is  smoothed  in  separate  sheets. 

In  that  case,  three  hands  are  necessary  to  attend  to 
the  work  of  a  callender.  The  first  engages  the  leaf 
between  the  two  upper  cylinders;  the  second  returns  it 
between  the  middle  and  the  lower;  and  the  third  receives 
the  sheet. 

The  calendered  paper  preserves  its  whiteness,  which  is 
somewhat  impaired  by  zinc.  All  things  being  equal, 
the  plates  are  better  for  thin  papers. 

It  is  difficult  to  calender  more  than  40  to  60  reams, 
whereas  over  100  may  be  furnished  by  means  of  the  first 
mentioned  machine. 

In  some  paper-mills,  different  designs  are  impressed 
upon  the  paper  bearing  the  generic  name  of  watermarks. 
Sometimes  a  series  of  parallel  or  cross  lines,  very  much 
in  demand  at  the  present  day  for  letter  papers,  are  con- 
sidered sufficient. 

This  marking  is  generally  done  in  the  stationers'  shops 
or  ii^  special  factories,  established  in  the  great  centres 
of  population. 

These  impressions  are  obtained  by  means  of  boards 
prepared  for  this  purpose  or  by  metallic  plates  bearing  a 
design  reproduced  in  relief  by  electrotyping. 

There  is  another  kind  of  watermark  obtained  during 
the  manufacture  of  the  paper  itself,  but  as  this  subject 
belongs  under  the  head  of  hand  manufacture,  we  shall 
reserve  it  for  a  future  chapter. 


104 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


•  The  softening  or  glazing  terminated,  there  remains 
the  operation  of  counting  and  putting  up  into  reams. 

The  ream  is  composed  of  500  sheets,  or  20  quires  of 
25  sheets  each.^  Some  manufacturers  compose  their 
reams  of  18  quires  of  No.  1  paper,  and  2  quires  of  No.  2, 
one  on  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom. 

The  leaves  are  counted  by  special  women  hands 
who  acquire  a  very  great  skill. 

The  quires  after  being  arranged  in  reams,  with  the  backs 
placed  alternately  for  folded  papers,  are  put  under  the 
press  at  night,  and  the  next  day  are  ready  to  be  packed. 

Packages  are  usually  composed  of  two  reams  for  thin 
papers. 

It  is  well  to  weigh  each  ream  before  packing ;  a  label 
is  pasted  on  indicating  the  quantity,  and  bearing  the 
name  and  address  of  the  consignee,  etc. 

A  careful  manufacturer  should  see  that  the  packing  is 
always  done  with  care,  and  even  with  elegance,  in  the 
case  of  choice  papers.  One  cannot  be  too  well  con- 
vinced of  the  great  principle  that  merchandise  must  be 
well  dressed. 

^  In  the  TJnited  States  the  ream  consists  uniformly  of  20  quires  of 
24  sheets  each. — Tr. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  105 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  THE  VAT  OR  BY  HAND. 

To  render  more  comprehensible  what  follows  upon 
the  subject  of  hand-manufacture,  we  shall  first  enter 
into  some  details  in  regard  to  the  apparatus  employed. 

The  principal  instrument  used  in  making  the  paper 
is  called  the  mould.  It  is  a  square  wooden  frame,  covered 
with  metallic  gauze  of  laid  or  woven  wire,  the  whole  sur- 
mounted with  a  deckle  or  empty  frame.  Figures  1,  2,  3, 
PI.  v.,  represent  a  vertical  and  horizontal  plan  of  the 
mould. 

a.  Frame  of  the  mould. 

h.  Wire  cloth. 

c.  Deckle. 

The  wire  cloth  is  sustained  by  a  number  of  cross 
pieces,  parallel  with  the  short  sides  of  the  mould  frame ; 
they  are  called — 

d.  Ribs. 

Making  the  moulds  and  fitting  the  deckles  require 
great  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman  charged  with  that 
business. 

Any  defect  in  contact  between  the  wire  cloth  and 
the  inner  border  of  the  deckle  would  prevent  the  deckle 
from  cutting^  to  use  an  expression  of  the  art,  that  is  to 
say,  the  pulp,  escaping  through  these  fissures,  would  give 
a  ragged  edge  to  the  sheet  of  paper.  On  the  contrary, 
when  the  deckle  fits  closely,  the  edge  of  the  paper  is 
clean  cut. 


106  PRACTICAL  GUXDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  size  of  the  deckle  will  regulate  that  of  the  paper. 

To  work  continuously  two  moulds  are  required,  and 
the  deckle  should  fit  them  both  accurately. 

The  frame  of  the  mould  and  deckle  should  be  made  of 
oak,  prepared  in  a  particular  manner  to  prevent  it  from 
warping  through  the  alternate  moisture  and  dryness  to 
which  it  is  exposed. 

This  wood  is  cut  into  thin  boards  without  knots  or 
flaws,  submitted  to  the  action  of  boiling  water  and  then 
dried.  This  is  repeated  several  times  before  the  wood 
is  considered  properly  fitted  for  use.  The  ribs  are  of 
pine. 

These  different  parts  taken  together  are  called  the  stock 
of  the  mould. 

If  the  wire  cloth  is  laid  this  is  done  by  the  maker  of 
the  mould. 

Le  Normand,  in  the  Technological  Dictionary ^  thus 
describes  this  operation  : — 

"  The  workman  takes  the  stocks  when  finished,  and 
bores  on  the  upper  surface  of  one  of  the  long  sides  of  the 
.mould,  above  the  tenon  of  each  rib,  as  many  holes  as 
there  are  ribs. 

"  He  then  places  a  pin  in  each  hole  carrying  two 
threads  of  fine  brass  wire  each  wound  upon  a  separate 
spool.    These  are  the  cross  wires. 

"  After  having  laid  out  the  wire  intended  to  compose 
the  cloth,  the  workman  proceeds  to  its  manufacture. 

"  He  lays  the  wire,  by  means  of  an  instrument  adapted 
to  that  purpose,  and  of  which  the  simplest  form  is  a  me- 
tallic plate,  on  the  surface  of  which  are  driven  two  rows 
of  well-polished  iron  pins  in  the  shape  of  a  quincunx,  giv- 
ing a  series  of  cylinders  having  all  their  surfaces  on  each 
side  in  a  straight  line,  representing  two  parallel  straight 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  107 


lines,  with  a  distance  between  them  equal  to  the  size  of 
the  wire.^ 

"  He  first  cuts  the  wire  into  suitable  and  equal  lengths, 
that  is  the  external  distance  between  the  short  sides  of 
the  mould. 

"  The  workman  then  places  the  stock  in  front  of  him 
in  an  inclined  position. 

"  He  passes  one  of  the  laid  wires  through  the  space 
between  the  two  cross  wires  which  he  separates,  and  car- 
ries it  from  one  end  of  the  frame  to  the  other.  He 
fastens  the  thread  by  means  of  the  cross  wires,  passing  it 
around  one  from  within  out,  and  around  the  other  from 
without  in.  He  continues  thus  to  fasten  each  of  the 
wires,  laying  one  after  another,  and  by  this  means  manu- 
factures a  true  cloth  in  the  same  manner  as  a  weaver. 
Thus,  if  we  consider  the  cross  wires  as  the  warp  and 
laid  wire  as  the  weft,  we  shall  be  convinced  that  these 
two  are  interlaced  in  the  same  manner  as  cloth,  with  the 
single  difference  that  the  meshes  of  the  warp  are  about 
twenty-seven  millimetres  (1.06  in.)  apart. 

"  When  he  has  filled  the  whole  bottom  of  the  mould, 
he  binds  the  cloth  to  the  ribs  with  very  fine  wire,  by 
passing  it  through  the  holes  bored  at  the  edges  of  the 
ribs  from  eighteen  to  twenty-seven  millimetres  (from  0.67 
to  1.06  in.)  apart  wrapping  them  round  and  above  the 
laid  wire  at  this  place. 

"  He  then  fastens  the  edges  of  the  wire  cloth  to  the 
stock  by  means  of  very  thin  and  narrow  brass  bands, 
which  he  nails  upon  the  frame  with  small  brass  nails. 
These  bands  serve  not  only  to  secure  the  free  ends  of  the 

^  This  operation  is  more  simply  accomplished  by  giving  the  wire  a 
turn,  and  using  two  fingers  of  the  left  hand  to  stretch  it.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  double  movement  the  wire  becomes  perfectly  straight. 


108  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


laid  and  cross  wires,  but  also  to  retain  the  pins  which 
hold  the  cross  wires  at  their  extremities,  and  strengthen 
the  joining  of  the  corners  of  the  mould." 

For  moulds  of  woven  wire,  the  maker  buys  the  wire 
gauze  ready  made;  cuts  it  of  a  suitable  size  and  fastens 
it  to  the  mould  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  described 
for  that  of  laid  wire. 

The  size  of  the  laid  wire  depends  upon  the  quality  of 
the  pulp  and  upon  the  operation  of  the  exchange,  as  we 
shall  see  further  on.  All  things  equal,  short-grained 
pulp  requires  the  finest  meshes.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
coarser  the  laid  wire  cloth  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  work. 

The  vessel  containing  the  pulp  ready  for  making  the 
paper  is  called  the  vat.  It  may  be  either  of  copper, 
wood,  or  mason  work.  Formerly  most  vats  were  of  cop- 
per and  heated  by  a  small  furnace  called  in  French  pis- 
tolet,  pistol. 

"When  a  steam  heater  is  available  it  is  simpler  and 
more  economical  to  conduct  the  steam-pipe  directly  into 
the  vat,  and  to  heat  the  contents  at  intervals  by  opening 
the  stopcock.  The  mean  temperature  ought  to  be  from . 
25°  to  35°  C.  (from  IT  to  95°  Fahr.)  and  ought  never 
to  exceed  40°  C.  (104°  F.). 

We  give  fig.  1  to  11,  pi.  IV.,  the  arrangement  of  two 
wooden  vats  furnished  with  all  their  accessories.  (See 
the  explanation  of  the  plates  at  the  end  of  the  manual.) 

The  name  of  post  is  applied  to  a  variable  number  of 
woollen  felts  a  little  larger  than  the  leaves  of  the  paper 
to  be  manufactured.  The  post  contains  6,  7,  or  8  quires 
of  26  pages  each,  that  is  to  say,  6  times  26,  7  times  26, 
or  8  times  26.    In  other  words 

1  post  of  6  quires  contains  157  felts  and  156  sheets  of  paper 
it    n    ti  ij     it        (t       183    "    "    182     "  " 
It    it    u  g     a        i(       209    "    "    208     "     "  " 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


109 


The  felts  should  possess  particular  qualities  which 
Desmarest  thus  describes  in  his  Traite  de  VArt  de  Fahri- 
quer  le  Papier. 

"  The  felts  have  two  surfaces  furnished  with  different 
naps.  That  side  which  has  the  longest  nap  is  applied  to 
the  couched  leaves,  and  on  the  side  with  the  shortest 
the  fresh  leaves  are  laid. 

"  If  this  arrangement  of  the  felts  were  changed,  and 
the  leaves  laid  upon  the  surface  covered  with  a  long 
nap,  not  only  would  they  not  apply  themselves  accurately 
to  the  felt,  but  the  long  stiff  hairs  would  pierce  the 
paper  or  cause  depressions^  which  would  injure  the  tex- 
ture. 

"  On  the  contrary,  the  leaves  fit  themselves  evenly  to 
the  side  with  a  short  nap,  which  absorbs  the  surplus 
water,  and  gives  them  a  sufficient  consistency  for  the 
time  being. 

"  It  is  also  from  this  side  that  the  layman  detaches 
the  leaves,  after  the  post  has  passed  through  the  press, 
and  after  he  has  raised  the  felts  which  covered  them  with 
their  rough  side,  so  that  the  different  character  of  these 
surfaces  is  an  assistance  as  well  to  the  layman  as  to  the 
coucher. 

"  The  stuff  of  which,  the  felts  are  made  requires  great 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  paper-maker,  and  much 
care  and  knowledge  of  the  art  of  paper-making  on  the 
part  of  the  manufacturer  who  prepares  them. 

"  They  should  be  firm  enough  to  be  spread  evenly  upon 
the  leaves  without  wrinkling  or  needing  to  be  displaced. 
Besides  this,  they  should  be  supple  enough  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  work  of  the  coucher,  who  applies  the 
•mould  successively  from  one  border  of  the  felt  to  the  other 
upon  every  intermediate  point. 

"As        felts  have  to  resist  the  reiterated  efforts  of 


110  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


the  coucher  and  the  press,  it  appears  necessary  that 
the  warp  of  these  stuffs  should  be  very  strong,  and  con- 
sequently of  combed  and  well-twisted  wool.^ 

"On  the  other  hand,  as  they  should  be  clean  and 
quickly  absorb  and  give  up  again  a  certain  amount  of 
water,  their  weft  should  be  of  carded  wool  loosely  spun 
and  woven  in  about  the  same  manner  as  light  cloths.  It 
results  from  this  that  the  weft  abundantly  fills  the  stuff 
and  covers  the  warp  in  such  a  way  that  the  texture  is 
not  marked  upon  the  paper,  which  would  injure  its  grain 
by  the  irregular  irnpression  of  an  uncovered  warp  and 
weft,  as  is  often  observed  in  manufactories  where  felts 
not  woven  upon  these  principles  are  used,  and  which 
does  not  denote  much  talent  on  the  part  of  the  paper 
manufacturer. 

"If  the  stuff  were  too  closely  woven,  like  ordinary 
cloths,  or  even  the  finest  kinds,  it  would  not  absorb  the 
water  enough  to  enable  the  leaves  to  adhere,  and  assume 
a  certain  consistency.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  Carcas- 
sonne cloths  are  very  well  adapted  to  this  purpose,  and 
that  those  of  Louviers,  of  which  the  texture  is  very 
close,  would  not  take  the  leaves  of  paper  couched  upon 
them  in  experiments  several  times  repeated,  because  the 
water  could  not  sufficiently  penetrate  them. 

"It  is  very  essential  that  the  warp  of  the  stuff,  in- 
tended to  be  made  into  felts,  should  be  strong  and  tough, 
so  that  they  may  be  of  good  service,  and  wear  well." 

*  We  are  authorized  in  supposing  that  the  first  felts  employed  in 
paper-making,"  says  Desraarest,  "were  not  textures  woven  upon  a 
loom,  and  consisting  of  a  warp  and  weft,  but  a  felted  woollen  material 
similar  to  that  used  for  making  hats.  It  was  afterwards  found  that 
these  felts  could  be  advantageously  replaced  by  woven  fabrics,  but 
their  ancient  denomination  has  been  retained." — Tr. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


Ill 


To  realize  these  conditions  the  surface  of  the  felt, 
upon  which  the  mould  is  applied  in  couching,  is  shorn. 

For  the  manufacture  of  fine  note  and  bank-note  paper, 
flannels  are  advantageously  employed. 

The  general  principle  is  that  the  wool  of  the  felts 
should  be  proportionately  fine  as  we  wish  to  give  the 
paper  a  finer  grain  and  more  homogeneous  texture. 

The  aggregate  of  leaves  of  paper  in  a  post  raised  from 
the  felts  is  called  a  white  post. 

Formerly  the  pulp  was  triturated  by  means  of  mallets, 
and  as  late  as  the  year  1861  the  stamp-ofiice  required 
that  these  primitive  engines  should  be  used.  On  accord- 
ing the  last  contract  for  stamped  paper,  the  office  autho- 
rized the  preparation  of  pulp  by  the  cylindrical  engine, 
now  universally  used.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  paper 
mills  of  Puy-de-D6me  still  possess  a  few  of  these  mallet 
engines. 

§  1.  Manufacture  of  Paper  by  Hand. 

Paper-making  from  the  vat,  or  by  hand,  requires  the 
labor  of  three  workmen  for  each  vat. 
1st.  The  vatman. 
2d.  The  coucher. 
3d.  The  layman. 

The  first,  by  dipping  the  mould  into  the  vat,  makes 
the  sheet;  the  second  stretches  or  couches  it  upon  the 
felt ;  the  third,  when  the  post  has  been  pressed,  succes- 
sively detaches  each  damp  leaf-  interposed  between  the 
felts. 

We  are  about  to  examine  these  different  manipula- 
tions in  their  natural  order. 

The  workman,  holding  the  mould  in  both  hands  by 
the  two  short  sides,  dips  it  into  the  pulp  at  an  inclination 


112  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


of  about  60  to  70  degrees,  and  raises  it  horizontally,  after 
having  taken  up  enough  of  the  pulp  to  obtain  the  re- 
quired thickness  of  the  paper  he  intends  to  make. 
By  means  of  a  double  oscillating  motion,  called  balanc- 

•  ing,  he  distributes  the  pulp,  as  uniformly  as  possible, 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  mould.  Gradually  the 
water  drains  through  the  wires  or  the  meshes  of  the  wire 
gauze ;  the  pulp  solidifies,  and  assumes  a  peculiar  shiny 
look,  which  indicates  to  the  workman  'that  the  leaf  is 
made. 

The  workman  then  lays  the  mould  upon  the  plank ; 
takes  off  the  deckle  which  he  places  at  his  right  upon 
the  bridge,  and  then  hands  the  mould  to  the  coucher. 
This  workman  raises  it, .  and  places  it  upon  a  small, 
curved,  wooden  stay  in  such  a  position  that  its  inclina- 
tion will  favor  the  drainage  of  the  water. 

The  vatman  then  applies  his  deckle  to  the  second 

*  mould,  and  makes  another  sheet.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
coucher  seizes  the  mould  with  his  left  hand  by  the  short 
•side  nearest  him,  and  grasping  it  again  by  the  upper 
long  side  which,  by  turning  the  mould,  is  on  his  right, 
he  applies  it  to  the  felt  making  it  describe  the  quarter 
of  a  circle. 

When  this  is  completed,  the  coucher  rises,  and  slides 
the  empty  mould  along  the  bridge. 

It  is  .after  this  operation  that  the  vatman  shoves  for- 
ward the  second  mould  deprived  of  its  deckle,  which  the 
coucher  places  upon  the  curved  stay  to  drain.  This 
workman  then  takes  a  felt  from  the  bench  on  his  right, 
and  applies  it  accurately  to  the  leaf  which  he  has  just 
couched. 

The  operation  we  have  just  described  continues  until 
the  post  is  completed,  that  is,  until  the  coucher  has  ex- 
hausted all  the  felts  of  which  it  is  composed. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  113 


The  number  of  the  felts  in  a  post  is  variable ;  in  the 
older  mills  it  was  comp*ed  of  eight  quires,  that  is  to 
say,  209  felts  containing  26  x  8  =  208  leaves  of  paper. 

The  two  workmen  should  regulate  their  work  so  that 
the  manipulations  of  each  may  coincide. 

The  rapidity  of  operation,  however,  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  pulp  and  of  the  wife  cloth  of  the  mould. 

There  are  two  methods  of  couching :  the  French  and 
the  Swiss.  In  the  first  the  coucher  applies  the  mould 
vertically  upon  the  felt  and  then  reverses  it. 

In  the  second,  the  mould  has  been  rotated  180  degrees, 
so  that  it  occupies  an  almost  reverse  horizontal  position ; 
the  coucher  first  leans  it  on  the  long  side,  and  then 
making  it  describe  an  arc  of  90  degrees,  he  couches 
every  part  of  the  leaf  upon  the  felt  successively. 

This  last  method  is  more  rapid  than  the  first,  but  re- 
quires more  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman  to  couch 
the  leaves  evenly  one  upon  the  other. 

It  should,  however,  be  adopted  exclusively  in  working 
with  pulp  not  readily  drained,  as  the  weight  of  the  pulp 
causes  it  to  gravitate  towards  the  lower  edge,  and  more 
or  less  destroy  the  homogeneous  character  given  the 
sheet  by  the  vatman. 

It  is  important  that  the  coucher  should  not  allow  any 
drops  of  water  to  fall  upon  the  pages  in  raising  the 
mould,  which  would  produce  so  many  spots  impossible 
afterwards  to  remove. 

On  beginning  a  post,  it  is  prudent  to  place  several 
felts,  one  upon  the  other,  so  as  to  make  a  softer  bed  for 
couching  the  first  leaves.  Without  this  precaution, 
shreds  of  pulp  remain  attached  to  the  mould,  and  produce 
breaks'  in  the  paper. 

Couching  by  the  long  side  of  the  mould  ofi'ers  the  double 
advantage  of  accelerating  the  work  and  facilitating  the 
8 


114 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


extraction  of  the  pulp  from  between  the  laid  wires,  as' 
each  interval  will  develop  t\9e  outline  of  the  surface 
generated  by  the  motion  of  the  coucher. 

Another  cause  of  waste,  proceeding  from  couching, 
are  bubbles,  that  is  to  say,  blemishes  upon  the  leaf,  pro- 
duced by  the  interposition  of  a  volume  of  air  between 
the  felt  and  the  leaf  ^Vhich,  escaping  when  the  next  leaf 
is  couched,  manifests  its  departure  by  a  depression  in 
the  sheet  of  paper  bearing  more  or  less  resemblance  to  a 
bottle;  hence,  they  are  called  in  France,  "bouteilles." 

New  felts  are  soft,  and  taking  less  hold  of  the  surface 
of  the  leaf  are  liable  to  this  kind  of  accident,  which  also 
occurs  whon  the  felt  is  badly  stretched. 

When  the  post  is  completed,  the  three  workmen  unite 
to  carry  and  place  it  under  the  press;  the  central  portion 
being  generally  more  elevated  than  the  edges,  the  differ- 
ence in  thickness  is  made  up  by  bits  of  wood  in  the  shape 
of  an  elongated  triangular  prism. 

The  workman  then  places  a  strong  oak  beam,  from 
15  to  20  centimetres  (4.89  to  7.86  inches)  thick,  upon 
which  the  force  of  the  press  is  exercised. 

It  is  preferable  to  employ,  instead  of  the  hand-press 
of  the  older  mills,  an  hydraulic  press,  the  force-pump  of 
which  should  be  of  sufficient  diameter  to  accelerate  the 
operation  of  pressing.  In  this  case  it  would  be  well  to 
place  a  strong  oak  plank  under  the  lid  of  the  press,  as 
the  elasticity  of  the  wood  renders  the  pressure  more 
uniform. 

The  requisite  degree  of  pressure  attained,  the  w^ork- 
man  brushes  off  the  drops  of  water  that  ooze  out  along 
the  felts,  and  which  would  be  absorbed  by  them  and 
thence  by  the  leaves  of  paper  when  the  pressure  is  • 
taken  off. 

When  the  post  is  carried  away,  the  work  of  the  third 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


115 


hand  begins,  while  the  other  workmen  are  filling  the  vat 
with -a  quantity  of  pulp  proportioned  to  the  weight  of 
the  preceding  post. 

The  layman  successively  detaches  the  moist  sheets, 
placing  them  one  upon  the  other,  and  throws  back  the 
felts  upon  the  bench  to  the  right  of  the  coucher. 

The  operation  of  raising  the  leaves  is  accomplished  in 
two  ways :  either  upon  an  inclined  or  horizontal  plane. 
In  the  first  method,  generally  employed  in  France, 
benches  are  used  with  an  inclination  of  about  50  to  60 
degrees. 

The  layman  is  generally  assisted  by  an  apprentice  whose 
duty  is  to  remove  the  felt,  while  the  workman  lays  his 
leaf  upon  the  preceding  one. 

This  assistant  may  be  dispensed  with  when  the  work 
is  done  upon  an  inclined  plane;  but  is  necessary  when 
the  direction  is  horizontal.  He  holds  a  sort  of  flat  rule, 
over  which  the  layman  throws  the  leaf  as  soon  as  de- 
tached from  the  felt,  still  holding  it  with  both  hands  by 
tiie  two  corners  of  the  short  side  nearest  him.  The  leaf, 
thus  supported  by  the  four  corners  is  placed  without 
difficulty  upon  the  preceding  one. 

Without  the  aid  of  the  assistant,  the  leaf,  still  very 
moist,  would  adhere  too  readily,  and  it  would  b^ difficult 
to  avoid  the  presence  of  folds. 

When  the  leaf  is  adjusted,  the  assistant  withdraws  the 
rule,  removes  the  felt,  and  the  operation  is  repeated. 

If  the  post  has  been  but  slightly  pressed,  it  is  difficult 
to  raise  the  leaves,  the  pulp  has  little  consistency,  and 
breaks,  the  corners  tear  off,  and  the  result  is  the  loss  of  a 
great  number  of  sheets.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pres- 
sure has  been  too  'great,  the  leaves  adhere  too  firmly  to 
the  felts  and  carry  away  some  fibres  of  wool.    It  is  the 


116  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


duty  of  the  layman,  therefore,  to  observe  whether  the 
pressure  is  sufficient,  too  slight,  or  too  great. 

When  all  the  leaves  are  detached,  the  layman  takes 
several  felts  to  cover  this  first  post  of  paper,  and  pats  it 
forcibly  with  both  hands  to  make  it  into  a  sort  of  com- 
pact cake  less  liable  to  be  torn  in  handling. 

After  several  days'  work,  the  felts  become  greasy,  and 
on  being  detached  from  the  leaves,  give  rise  to  a  peculiar 
creak.  It  is  indispensable  to  wash  them  with  brown  soap 
in  order  to  give  them  back  their  softness  and  absorbing 
qualities,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  operations  of  couching  and 
separating  the  leaves.  . 

There  also  accumulates  around  the  sides  of  the  vati  , 
after  a  certain  length  of  time,  a  peculiar  kind  of  grease 
which,  if  mixed  with  the  pulp,  would  produce  spots  upon 
the  paper. 

It  is  proper  to  clean  the  vats  at  least  once  a  month, 
and  even  every  fortnight.  This  cleaning  should  take 
place  on  Saturday,  at  the  close  of  the  day's  work.  The 
pulp  is  used  up  as  far  as  possible  by  making  a  last  post 
of  paper  somewhat  thinner  than  the  others.  The  pulp  is 
then  removed  with  great  care,  without  touching  the  sub- 
stances at  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  which  are  most  im- 
pregnated with  this  grease. 

By  means  of  a  brush  the  internal  surface  of  the  vat  is 
perfectly  cleansed,  and,  after  repeated  rinsing,  the  pulp 
which  had  been  removed  is  replaced. 

The  greasy  pulp  may  serve  for  manufacturing  the  com- 
mon kinds  of  paper. 

In  some  mills  the  posts  of  paper,  after  having  been 
subjected  to  a  slight  pressure,  are  carried  to  the  drying 
room.  But  if  we  desire  to  obtain  a  superior  quality  of 
paper,  it  is  essential  to  lift  and  exchange  the  leaves. 

Lifting  consists  in  detaching  one,  two,  or  several 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  117 


leaves  together,  and  forming  new  posts  before  hanging 
them  up  to  dry. 

In  the  exchange,  the  leaves  are  lifted  one  by  one,  and 
replaced  one  above  the  other  in  a  different  order  from 
that  which  they  at  first  occupied.  The  person  charged 
with  this  work  takes  alternately  a  leaf  from  two  posts 
placed  beside  him  and  makes  of  them  a  new  one,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  middle  leaves  are  at  the  outside,  and 
vice  versa. 

The  grain  of  the  paper  is  softened,  the  pulp  acquires 
a  greater  degree  of  firmness,  and  assumes  'the  velvety 
feel  which  characterizes  the  Dutch  papers  where  the  ex- 
change is  universally  practised. 

After  four  or  five  such  operations,  alternating  with 
pressure  growing  stronger  as  the  paper  gains  consistency, 
the  leaves  are  carried  to  the  drying-room. 

These  posts  of  paper  being  thicker  in  the  middle  than 
at  the  edges,  the  irregularity  is  compensated  by  bands  of 
felt  at  the  moment  of  subjecting  them  to  the  action  of 
the  press. 

It  is  very  important  to  moderate  the  pressure,  espe- 
cially at  the  commencement  of  the  exchange,  for  it  might 
happen  that  the  leaves  should  become  as  it  were  welded 
to  each  other;  and  if  laid  paper  is  being  made,  the  water- 
mark of  the  wires  might  in  part  disappear.  The  Dutch 
therefore,  consistent  in  their  methods  of  manufacture, 
adopt  coarser  laid  wires. 

The  exchange  requiring  great  lightness  of  hand,  it  is 
preferable  to  employ  women  in  this  work,  which  we  con- 
sider indispensable,  for  fine  drawing-paper  and  certain 
kinds  of  register  paper,  which  are  not  to  be  satined  at  all. 

The  paper  is  hung  in  spurs  of  four  or  five  leaves, 
which  are  placed  upon  the  ropes  or  tribbles  by  means  of 
.poles.  * 


118  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

Paper  not  exchanged,  when  dried  in  warm  weather, 
shrinks,  and  acquires  a  hardness  which  nothing  will 
remove. 

Moreover,  the  material  when  too  soft  yields  to  its  own 
weight,  lengthens  out  and  forms  a  wrinkle  on  the  back 
of  the  leaf,  a  defect  which,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  found 
in  almost  all  French  paper.  This  imperfection  is  less 
evident  when  the  paper  is  delivered  folded ;  but  if  it  is 
sold  unfolded,  which  is  necessary  for  printing  paper, 
there  result  a  great  number  of  broken  sheets. 

In  France,  the  drying-rooms  are  perched  upon  the  top 
of  the  house.  In  Holland  less  elevated,  and  cooler  sto- 
ries are  preferred,  in  order  to  prolong  the  drying. 

Some  manufacturers  go  so  far  as  to  hang  the  paper  in 
spurs  of  seven  or  eight  leaves  in  order  to  economize  space 
in  the  drying-room.  This  method  is  bad  under  every 
aspect.  The  leavgs  on  the  outside  dry  more  quickly  than 
the  under  ones.  The  air  circulates  badly,  and  the  dry- 
ing is  not  homogeneous  and  uniform. 

The  nature  of  the  tribbles  has  a  great  influence  upon 
the  cleanliness  of  the  paper.  Hempen  ropes  ought  to 
be  rejected,  as  they  stain  the  back  of  the  sheet  yellow. 
Those  of  aloes  and  of  the  fibres  of  several  kinds  of  cane 
are  advantageously  employed. 

In  France,  the  diameter  of  the  tribbles  is  generally 
too  small.  With  large  ropes,  the  air  circulates  better, 
and  the  back  of  the  sheet,  being  more  rounded,  is  not 
so  apt  to  crease. 

As  soon  as  the  paper  is  dry,  which  fact  is  recognized 
by  the  peculiar  rustling  produced  among  the  leaves  when 
they  are  agitated  by  the  hand,  follows  the  operation  of 
sizing. 

The  duration  of  the  drying  depends  upon  the  season, 
the  sitjl^tion  of  the  drying-room,  the  diameter  of  the 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


119 


tribbles,  the  number  of  leaves  in  a  spur,  the  operation 
of  exchange,  the  thickness  of  the  paper,  and  the  pulp 
used  in  making  it. 

To  be  kept  continuously  at  work,  a  well- organized 
mill  ought  to  be  furnished  with  drying-rooms  warmed 
by  hot-air  furnaces,  so  as  to  be  able  to  dry  and  size  the 
paper  at  all  seasons. 

§  2.  Sizing. 

To  render  the  hand-made  paper  impermeable,  or  fitted 
to  receive  writing,  it  is  dipped  in  a  warm  solution  of 
gelatine  raised  to  a  temperature  of  from  20°  to  f35°  C. 
(68°  to  95°  Fahr.).   This  constitutes  animal  sizing. 

This  size  is  prepared  by  dissolving  through  long  boil- 
ing, tablets  of  the  dry  gelatine  of  commerce,  previously 
swollen  by  immersion  in  cold  water. 

It  is  nevertheless  an  advantage,  in  some  countries,  for 
the  paper  manufacturer  to  prepare  his  own  size  by  means 
of  the  refuse  of  hides,  cartilages,  ears,  hoofs,  tendons, 
etc.,  bought  from  tanners  or  the  shambles. 

This  refuse  animal  matter  is  dipped  in  milk  of  lime, 
which  preserves  it  from  putrefaction,  and  after  drying  in 
the  open  air  is  sold  under  the  name  of  scrolls. 

Notwithstanding  the  use  of  lime,  if  the  desiccation 
has  not  been  well  attended  to,  it  happens  that  this  size 
undergoes  a  certain  kind  of  fermentation  whicR  deprives 
it  of  a  part  of  its  adhesive  qualities.  This  defect  is  re- 
cognized by  the  ammoniacal  odor  generated  while  the 
material  is  boiling. 

Size  obtained  from  young  animals,  such  as  lambs, 
calves,  etc.,  is  easily  prepared,  and  of  a  white  color; 
whereas  that  produced  by  the  hides  of  oxen,  cows,  etc., 


120  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


is  darker,  but  stronger,  and  tougher,  and  gives  more 
firmness  and  resonance  to  the  paper. 

To  obtain  the  solution  of  the  gelatine  contained  in  the 
scrolls,  these  last  are  placed  in  a  copper  boiler,  surrounded 
by  mason  work,  and  usually  heated  by  a  naked  fire. 

It  is  well  first  to  wash  the  scrolls  in  order  to  remove 
the  .  various  impurities  which  they  contain. 

The  duration  of  the  boiling  Varies  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  materials.  For  those  obtained  from  oxen, 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  at  least  are  required. 

The  scrolls  should  not  touch  the  bottom  of  the  vessel ; 
as  the  parts  in  contact  with  the  metal  become  too  greatly 
heated,  and  produce,  a  brown  discoloration  of  the  solu- 
tion. To  remedy  this  evil,  in  some  mills  a  bed  of  straw 
is  laid  at  the  bottom  cff  the  caldron.  But  though  the 
nature  of  the  evil  is  changed,  the  efi'ect  remains  much 
the  same,  as  the  straw  gives  up  its  own  yellow  coloring 
matter.  .  . 

When  fine  paper  is  to  be  made,  it  is  advantageous  to 
employ  wicker,  or,  still  better,  copper  baskets,  holding 
from  100  to  150  kilog.  (220.47  to  830.69  lbs.  avoird.)  of 
size,  which  may  be  let  down  into  the  caldron  by  means 
of  a  pulley. 

During  the  first  hours  of  boiling,  fatty  matters  appear 
upon  the  surface  which  are  skimmed  off.  To  facilitate 
this  operation,  they  are  sprinkled  with  lime,  so  as  to 
form  a  calcareous  soap. 

When  it  is  thought  that  the  solution  is  sufficiently 
concentrated,  the  liquid  is  run  off  into  a  lower  vessel, 
and  the  caldron  again  filled  with  water.  By  again 
boiling,  a  second  weaker  solution  is  obtained,  and  is  gen- 
erally mixed  with  the  first. 

Another  method  is  to  let  into- the  boiler  a  quantity  of 
water  proportioned  to  the  volume  of  the  solution  drawn 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


121 


off  by  the  stopcock,  so  that  the  level  of  the  liquid  will 
remain  invariable.  The  boiling  is  continued,  and  the 
fire  is  removed  when  it  is  judged  by  the  amount  drawn 
off  that  the  scrolls  have  been  deprived  o£  all  their  soluble 
principles.  This,  however,  may  be  easily  ascertained  by 
withdrawing  some  of  the  animal  matter  from  the  basket. 

The  solution  thus  obtained  is  never  clear;  it  contains 
•Buspended  in  it  different  substances  of  which  it  is  to  be 
freed.    This  constitutes  the  operation  of  clarifying  the 
size. 

A  small  quantity  of  powdered  lime  is  added,  and,  after 
being  stirred,  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  rest.  If  the  im- 
purities have  not  completely  settled  to  the  bottom,  a 
half  a  hundredth  part  of  sulphuric  acid  is  added.  An 
insoluble  sulphate  of  lime  is  formed  at  once,  and  its 
precipitation  clarifies  the  solution. 

The  liquid  is  decanted  and  filtered  through  several 
folds  of  felt  which  retain  any  remaining  impurities. 
This  solution  contains  a  mixture  of  gelatine  and  chon- 
drine,  two  substances  differing  very  greatly  in  their  pro- 
perties. The  latter  being  an  obstacle  in  sizing,  it  is 
indispensable  to  illuminate  it.  Very  fortunately  this 
material  is  completely  precipitated  by  a  concentrated 
solution  of  alum.  Sulphate  of  alumina,  and  sulphate  of 
iron  produce  the  same  effect. 

The  size,  when  again  filtered,  is  ready  for  use ;  if  it  is 
too  concentrated  it  is  diluted  with  warm  water.  The 
temperature  and  the  strength  of  the  size  both  vary 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  paper  and  the  condition* 
of  the  atmosphere.  Papers  manufactured  from  hard 
rags,  not  fermented,  require  a  thin  size  with  a  high  tem- 
perature. The  reverse  is  the  case  with  those  made  from 
soft  rags.  All  things  equal,  it  is  important  that  the 
strength  should  be  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter. 


122 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  papers  are  dipped  in  a  copper  caldron  of  about 
one  metre  (3.28  feet)  in  diameter  by  0.50  to  0.70  metre 
(1.64  to  2.24  feet)  in  depth.  These^  dimensions  are  not 
fixed;  they  will  depend,  as  may  be  readily  seen,  upon 
the  size  of  the  paper. 

To  keep  up  an  even  temperature,  the  caldron  is 
heated  by  a  small  furnace.    It  would  be  much  preferable 
to  adopt  the  heat  of  a  water-bath  or  steam,  by  means  of^ 
a  worm  or  a  caldron  with  double  sides. 

The  workman  employed  in  the  operation  of  sizing 
dips  a 'package  containing  from  100  to  150  leaves  at  a 
time,  separating  them  like  a  fan,  and  manipulates  them 
so  that  every  part  o?  the  leaves  shall  be  uniformly  satu- 
rated.   This  requires  a  certain  amount  of  skill. 

He  then  carries  the  package  to  the  immovable  stand 
of  a  hand-press  near  the  sizing  tub. 

He  then  lays  a  series  of  packages  one  above  the  other, 
and  when  they  have  attained  a  height  of  0.50  metre 
(1.64  feet)  he  places  a  plank  upon  them,  and  presses 
them  in  order  to  drive  out  the  excess  of  size,  which 
flows  back  into  the  tub  placed  below  it. 

The  degree  of  pressure  should  vary  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  paper ;  so  that,  in  all  cases,  the  leaves  may 
be  readily  removed  singly  and  without  tearing. 

The  moist-sized  paper  must  then  be  carried  to  the 
drying-room,  and  hung  upon  the  tribbles  in  spurs  of  two, 
three,  or  four  sheets." 

Careful  manufacturers  exchange  the  paper  when  sized 
'before  carrying  it  to  the  drying-rooms.  The  drying  is 
benefited  by  this,  and  the  leaves  acquire  more  strength 
and  firmness. 

M.  Payen,  in  his  Chimie  Industrielle,  gives  the  follow- 
ing theory  of  gelatine  sizing: — 

"In  order  that  paper  may  be  well  sized,  it  must  be 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


123 


properly  dried.  This  should  be  done  gradually  and 
slowly,  without,  however,  being  carried  so  far  as  to  allow 
the  spontaneous  decomposition  of  the  gelatine  to  take 
place. 

"This  accident  sometimes  occurs  in  summer, especially 
in  damp  and  stormy  weather;  the  size  then  liquefies, 
loses  its  adhesive  qualities,  and  the  operation  miscarries. 
If  the  drying  is  too  rapid,  the  size  remains  disseminated 
through  the  entire  substance  of  the  paper;  but  if  the 
process  is  carried  on  with  proper  slowness,  the  moisture 
contained  in  the  paper  gradually  finds  its  way  to  the 
surface,  and  carries  with  it  the  gelatine,  which  forms  a 
superficial  and  impermeable  coating. 

"The  drying  is  moderated  by  means  of  ordinary  win- 
dow blinds,  the  openings  of  which  may  be  regulated  at 
will.  It  will  be  understood  that  by  drying  slowly  the 
gelatinous  solution  is  allowed  to  come  to  the  surface  as 
fast  as  the  evaporation  of  the  water  takes  place,  and  that 
therefore  the  greater  part  of  the  gelatine  is  concentrated 
at  the  surface,  and  renders  the  paper  impermeable, 
whereas  if  dried  too  quickly  this  material  would  remain 
disseminated  throughout  its  entire  substance. 

"It  is  easily  ascertained  whether  the  paper  is  sized  on  • 
the  surface  only,  by  scratching  it,  and  then  drawing  an 
ink  mark  over  the  denuded  part.  The  paper  sized  with 
gelatine  will  absorb  the  liquid,  whereas  the  ink  will  re- 
main unaffected  by  machine-made  paper  sized  with  resin 
through  the  entire  thickness." 

This  explanation  is  entirely  confirmed  by  the  practice 
of  dampening  the  paper  when  too  quickly  dried,  and  ap- 
pearing to  be  imperfectly  sized.  Such  paper  placed 
between  wet  leayes  becomes  moist,  and  by  again  passing 
through  the  drying-room,  the  size  disseminated  through- 


124 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


out  the  substance  of  the  leaves  comes  out  on  the  surface 
as  the  water  evaporates,  and  the  paper  becomes  imper- 
meable without  any  additional  gelatine. 

This  process  gives  the  paper  firmness,  and  some  manu- 
facturers were  formerly  in  the  habit  of  always  employing  it 
for  certain  kinds  of  paper,  finding  in  the  excellence  of  the  , 
result  a  sufficient  compensation  for  the  cost  of  the  double 
manipulation. 

The  character  of  the  water  has  a  marked  effect  upon 
sizing,  as  direct  experiments  made  by  M.  Mongolfier, 
prove  beyond  a  doubt. 

It  is  therefore  essential  that  the  water  which  is  to  be 
used  in  the  different  manipulations  of  the  pulp  should 
be  clarified  with  much  care.  If  the  water  is  very  highly 
charged  with  calcareous  matters,  it  is  well  to  precipitate 
these  substances  with  carbonate  of  soda  or  even  alum. 

The  proportion  of  these  reagents  ought,  of  course,  t 
vary  according  to  the  composition  of  the  water. 

Certain  well  waters  containing  a  great  quantity  of 
selenite  (sulphate  of  lime,  CaO,S03+2HO)  absorb  1.83 
grammes  (28.25  grs.  troy)  of  pure  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
before  being  enabled  to  dissolve  soap. 

River  waters  require  from  ten  to  thirty  grammes 
(159.42  to  463.25  grs.  troy)  of  alum  to  the  hectolitre 
(22.01  gallons)  of  liquid  to  effect  this  precipitate.  This 
fact  explains  the  superiority  of  the  papers  produced  by 
some  mills  situated  upon  streams  with  granite  beds 
yielding  them  no  calcareous  elements. 

AVhen  certain  kinds  of  drawing  paper  are  not  suffi- 
ciently sized,  we  advise  the  use  of  the  following  mixture, 
very  much  employed  in  the  offices  of  civil  engineers  and 
architects.  Its  composition  is  simple  and  its  preparation 
easy. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 
« 


125 


Dissolve  in  one  litre  (1.76  pints)  of  water 

122  grammes  (1583.96  grs.  troy)  Flemish  glue, 
122       "       (1583.96  grs.  troy)  white  soap. 

After  dissolving  add— 

62  grammes  (0.126  lb.)  of  powdered  alum. 
This  size  is  applied  cold  with  a  sponge  or  fine  brush. 

§  3.  Finishing. 

The  closing  preparation  of  hand-made  paper  is  the 
same  as  that  before  described  in  the  case  of  paper  made 
by  machinery. 

On  leaving  the  drying-rooms,  the  paper  is  piled  up 
and  subjected  to  repeated  pressures  in  order  to  remove 
in  part  the  trace  of  the  fold  on  the  back.  A  series  of 
packages  is  made  up,  between  each  of  which  packages 
is  placed  a  wooden  board  of  the  same  size  as  the  paper, 
in  order  that  the  action  of  the  press  may  be  more  uni- 
form and  better  economized. 

Such  papers  as  are  not  to  be  rolled  require  a  more 
energetic  pressure.  '  It  is  also  well  not  to  pile  them  up 
when  they  are  too  dry,  as  the  last  traces  of  moisture 
greatly  facilitate  the  work. 

The  nature  of  the  wood  from  which  the  boards  are 
made  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference:  wood  without 
knots  is  required  ;  and  very  dry  walnut  answers  the  pur- 
pose quite  well. 

Sometimes  these  boards  are  covered  over  with  polished 
pasteboard,  or  the  latter  is  used  alone. 

Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  hard  substances 
placed  between  the  packages  (200  to  500  leaves),  it  is 
very  essential  that  the  pressure  should  be  quite  gradual 
in  the  beginning,  otherwise  the  leaves  crease,  or  the 


126  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

grain  is  unequally  crushed,  and  never  gives  that  uniform 
dead  surface  which  is  characteristic  of  the  products  of 
the  best  paper-mills. 

Before  being  put  up  into  reams  and  packed,  the  pres- 
sure of  an  hydraulic  press  would  much  increase  the  lustre 
of  the  paper. 

The  principal  defects  which  are  found  in  paper  made  . 
by  hand,  are  knots,  lumps,  shreds,  drops  of  water,  bub- 
bles, folds,  torn  edges,  ragged  edges,  spots  of  size,  holes, 
and  tears. 

When  the  paper  is  put  up  in  reams,  it  should  be  per- 
fectly dry,  and  laid  in  a  dry  and  well-ventilated  place, 
otherwise,  by  the  action  of  moisture,  it  would  soon  sour. 

§  4.  Manufacture  of  Bank  Note-  Paper  and  "Water- 
marked Paper  in  general. 

The  paper  of  bank  notes,  when  held  to  the  li^ht,  gen- 
'erally  presents  inscriptions  or  designs  which,  in  the  art, 
are  called  watermarks. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  watermarks.  The  most 
simple  are  obtained  by  sewing  to  the  laid  or  wove  wires 
of  the  mould  fine  brass  wire  twisted  according  to  the 
outlines  of  the  design,  or,  still  better,  a  thin  copper  leaf 
cut  out  with  a  puncher  or  graver. 

The  increase  of  thickness  in  this  place,  and  the  raised 
wire  preventing  the  pijlp  from  draining,  produces  a  re- 
verse effect  upon  the  paper,  the  design  of  which  is  seen 
lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  leaf 

This  kind  of  watermark  is  adopted  for  French  stamped 
paper.  The  design  is,  at  present,  an  eagle  surrounded 
by  two  concentric  ovals,  between  which  is  inscribed 
"  Timbre  Imperial,^^  and  the  year  in  which  the  paper  is 
made. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  127 


This  simple  watermark,  easily  imitated  by  pressure, 
is  insufficient  for  bank  notes  and  paper  money,  properly 
so-called. 

In  this  case  the  following  devices  are  resorted  to,  first, 
the  use  of  a  dark  watermark  with  light  letters  obtained 
by'  depressing  the  wire  cloth  itself,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  produce  a  sort  of  rectangular  cavity  in  which  a  greater 
quantity  of  pulp  may  be  deposited,  and  then  sewing  the 
letters  to  the  bottom  of  this  depression.  Second,  shaded 
watermarks,  the  richest  of  all,  allow  us  to  obtain,  by  a 
sort  of  moulding  process,  every  variety  of  relief,  of  what- 
ever nature. 

We  give,  in  PI.  V.,  different  specimens  of  water- 
mark : — 

1st,  Fig.  10  to  14,  light  watermark. 

2d,   "     15  and  16,  light  watermark  on  dark  ground. 

3d,   "     18,  shaded  watermark. 

The  principle  of  depressing  the  face  of  wire  cloth  or 
the  preparation  of  watermarks,  is  that  every  part  of  the 
surface  should  be  readily  stripped  from  the  pa'per  in 
order  to  render  possible  the  operation  of  couching. 

The  manufacture  of  watermarked  paper  requires  espe- 
cial care.  The  workman  must  manage  to  produce  a  leaf 
of  exactly  uniform  thickness  throughout  its  whole  ex- 
tent. This  is  necessary  to  secure  a  clear  impression. 
The  couoher  should  see  that  this  impression  is  sufficiently 
distinct,  and  notify  the  foreman  at  once,  when  a  letter  or 
any  other  part  has  become  detached  or  unsewed. 

Moulding  the  wire  cloth,  for  shaded  watermarks,  re- 
quires the  skill  both  of  a  moulder  and  an  engraver. 

As  paper  money  is  to  undergo  constant  rumpling,  the 
manufacturer  should  exclusively  employ  linen  or  brown 
•  Holland  rags,  well  boiled  and  slightly  bleached  in  order 
to  remove  the  gummy,  fatty,  and  other  matters  which 


128  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


would  render  the  paper  too  transparent,  but  these  opera- 
tions need  to  be  carried  on  with  great  care  in  order  not 
to  impair  the  strength  of  the  fibres. 

In  order  to  soften  the  grain  and  remove  the  marks  of  ■ 
the  felts  or  flannels,  the  exchange  must  be  resorted  to, 
arid  the  first  drying  should  take  place  between  sheets  of 
bibulous  paper.  When  once  the  greater  part  of  the 
water  has  been  drained  off,  the  paper  may  without  dan- 
ger be  carried  to  the  drying-rooms. 

The  preparation  of  the  size  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant operations ;  for  if  it  is  badly  made,  the  paper  will 
be  soft,  instead  of  presenting  its  characteristic  firmness 
and  metallic  resonance. 

Although  we  have  paid  especial  attention  to  the  manu- 
facture of  the  material  of  bank  notes,  paper  money,  etc., 
our  reserve  in  not  entering  further  into  the  different 
processes  adopted  and  practised  by  the  banks  for  the 
manufacture  of  their  bills  will  be  readily  appreciated. 

§  5.  Comparison  between  Machine  and  Hand-made 

Papers. 

The  papers  made  by  one  or  the  other  method  of  manu- 
facture having  each  a  special  application,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  us  to  indicate  these  in  order  to  set  forth  the 
respective  advantages  of  both  kinds. 

Machine-made  paper  abundantly  produced,  and  quickly 
delivered,  is  indispensable  at  the  present  day  for  com- 
mon printing  and  writing  papers,  and  those  for  wrap- 
ping, packing,  etc. ;  in  other  words  for  all  paper  the  uses 
of  which  are  ephemeral  and  limited. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  a  machine,  is  that  it 
enables  us  to  make  the  paper,  size,  djry,  and  deliver  it  • 
within  twenty-four  hours. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND.  129 

Hand-made  papers,  on  the  contrary,  require  long-con- 
tinued and  expensive  labor,  and,  in  consequence,  cannot 
be  delivered  in  less  than  the  second  month  after  the 
order  is  received. 

For  each  size  of  paper,  a  separate  pair  of  moulds  has 
to  be  made. 

This  kind  of  paper  is  particularly  adapted  for  impor- 
tant documents,  whether  printed  or  written,  as  it  is  com- 
posed of  strong  filamentous  substances  exclusively. 

As  the  addition  of  mineral  matters  in  making  paper 
by  machinery  increases  every  day,  the  paper  becomes 
brittle,  and  the  use  of  chemical  reagents  in  too  large 
proportions  impairs  the  resisting  power  of  the  fibres  to 
such  an  extent,  that  there  merely  remains  a  material 
without  consistency,  and  receiving  only  an  appearance 
of  strength  from  the  increased  proportion  of  starch  used 
in  preparing  the  size. 

The  cost  of  labor  required  by  hand-made  papers  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  principal  elements  of  the  entire  expense 
of  a  mill;  the  manufacturer,  therefore,  works  up  only 
linen,  slightly  boiled  and  unbleached,  so  as  to  give  the 
paper  all  possible  strength  and  suppleness. 

In  manufacturing  by  the  machine  the  paper  under- 
goes constant  traction,  and  especially  between  the  last 
.  wet  press  and  the  first  drying  cyHnder.    This  tension 
deranges  the  interlacing  of  the  fibres,  and  is  sometimes 
so  great  that  the  sheet  is  broken. 

In  manufacturing  by  hand  the  fibres  retain  the  original 
order  of  their  arrangement,  the  texture  is  more  supple, 
and,  when  rendered  impermeable  by  varnishing  both 
sides  with  gelatine,  the  paper  acquires  a  peculiar  reso- 
nance. 

To  these  advantages  we  may  add  another  no  less 
9 


130  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


important  for  certain  kinds  of  paper.  We  allude  to  the 
watermarks. 

The  paper  being  made  leaf  by  leaf  upon  the  same  or 
perfectly  similar  moulds,  it  is  evident  that  the  water- 
mark will  invariably  occupy  the  same  position  in  each 
sheet. 

As  the  guaranty  of  the  watermark  is  beyond  dispute, 
we  can  appreciate  the  reasons  of  the  French  government, 
notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  said,  in  maintaining 
the  method  of  manufacture  by  hand  for  stamped  paper. 
More  especially,  then,  do  we  admit  the  necessity  of 
employing  papers  made  by  hand  upon  watermark 
moulds  for  bank  notes,  paper  money,  etc. 

It  is  also  impossible  to  exercise  strict  control  over  the 
amount  of  paper  made  by  machinery,  whereas  by  the 
other  system  we  easily  regulate  the  entire  number  of 
pages  to  be  manufactured  in  a  day.  Nothing  can  be 
more  simple  than,  for  example,  to  fix  the  product  of 
each  vat  at  2,000,  2,200,  or  3,000  leaves  for  every  ten 
hours  of  actual  work. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  the  machine-made  papers  are 
suited  to  the  current  uses  of  writing  and  printing  mate- 
rials, etc. ;  and  their  consumption  considerably  increases 
every  year. 

Hand-made  papers  are  reserved  for  printing  works 
destined  to  be  transmitted  to  posterity,  stamped  papers, 
or  those  which  are  required  to  be  taxed,  paper  money 
in  general,  and  drawing  paper,  which,  up  to  the  pnesent 
time,  the  machine  has  only  been  able  to  imitate  very 
imperfectly.  We  think,  therefore,  for  the  above  reasons, 
that  these  two  methods  of  manufacture  will  always  have 
a  legitimate  and  distinct  existence. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


131 


§  6.  Classification  of  Paper. 

The  different  kinds  of  paper  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  are  embraced  in  the  following  classification, 
perhaps  seemingly  puerile,  but  which  allows  us  to  dis- 
cern at  a  glance  the  aggregate  of  the  qualities  resulting 
from  the  composition  of  the  papers  or  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  adapted : — 

White  papers. 
Colored  papers. 
Double  colored  papers. 
Papers  sized  with  resin  or  vegetable  size. 
Papers  sized  with  gelatine  or  animal  size. 
Papers  sized  with  a  mixture  of  animal  or  vege- 
table size. 
Papers  half  sized. 
Papers  unsized.  •  0 
Wove  papery. 
Laid  papers. 

Papers  watermarked  by  compression. 
Papers  watermarked  in  the  pulp. 
Unpolished  paper. 
Rolled  or  satined  paper. 
Glazed  paper. 
Writing  paper. 
Printing  paper. 
•  Engraving  paper. 
*         Tissue  paper  for  artificial  flowers. 
Tissue  paper  unsized. 
Tissue  paper  for  tracing. 
Register  paper. 
Drawing  paper. 
Parchment  paper. 


132  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

• 

Bibulous  paper. 

Silk  or  silver  paper. 

Berzelius  or  filtering  paper. 

Cigarette  paper. 

Brown  paper. 

Wrapping  paper. 

Packing  paper. 

Blotting  paper. 

Leather  paper. 

Tarred  paper. 

Paper  made  of  straw. 

Paper  made  of  wood,  etc.  etc. 

Papers  also  receive  dilferent  names  according  to  their 
sizes. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


133 


CHAPTER  V; 

FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING.  • 

[The  importance  of  sizing,  as  a  part  of  the  pniesses  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper,  induces  the  translator  to  believe  that  the  following 
chapter,  by  M.  L.  S.  Le  Normand,^  will  be  of  interest  and  value  to 
the  American  manufacturer.] 

If  paper  were  sent  into  the  market  in  the  stage  of  pre- 
paration to  which  it  attains  before  sizing ;  if  we  were 
satisfied  with  first  drying  and  then  forcibly  pressing  it, 
the  material  would  be  soft,  with  scarcely  any  consistency, 
and  could  only  possess  a  very  limited  usefulness.  Ink, 
if  deposited  upon  one  of  its  surfaces,  would  pass  through 
the  pores  of  the  paper  and  appear  at  once  upon  the  oppo- 
site side.    Printer's  ink  would  scarcely  adhere  to  it. 

At  the  time  when  the  very  first  sheets  of  paper  were 
made,  this  inconvenience  was  recognized,  and  means 
were  sought  to  remedy  it.  The  sizing  used  for  many 
other  objects  was  the  only  kind  then  known,  and  its  ap- 
pUcation  to  this  new  product  was  therefore  attempted. 

Two  methods  presented  themselves  for  attaining  this 
object.  One  was  to  mix  the  size  with  the  rag  pulp, 
which  would  carry  this  material,  so  necessary  to  the 
solidity  of  the  manufacture,  into  the  substance  of  the 
paper  itself ;  the  other  was  to  cover  over  the  surfaces  of 
each  leaf  with  a  preparation  of  the  same  material.  It 
seems  that  the  first  method  was  not  even  tried,  and  that. 

1  "  Nouveau  Manuel  Complet  du  Fabricant  de  Papiers,  ou  de  TArt 
de  la  Papeterie." 


134  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

it  was  feared,  lest  by  introducing  this  mucilaginous  sub- 
stance into  the .  pulp,  it  would  impair  the  regularity  of 
surface  so  important  to  the  paper.  The  most  ancient 
authors  make  no  mention  of  such  an  attempt,  which  cer- 
tainly would  have  led  them  to  the  improvements  recently 
introduced  into  the  art  we  are  studying,  as  we  shall  see 
further  on.  It  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  our  plan 
consists  in  descifting  first  the  old  methods  of  preparing 
paper,  and  afterwards  ending  off  with  the  new  processes, 
by  showing  all  the  improvements  which  have  been  made 
in  this  important  art. 

The  second  of  the  above-mentioned  methods  was  at 
first  alone  practised;  it  consists  in  using  glue  or  gelatine, 
into  a  solution  of  which  the  paper  is  dipped,  so  that  it 
becomes  glazed  on  both  sides,  and  acquires  the  properties 
which  it  before  lacked.  This  operation,  which  is  called 
sizing,  requires  us  to  enter  into  minute  details  in  order 
fully  to  understand  the  various  ifianipulations. 

§  1.  Of  the  Sizing-Room. 

In  a  paper-mill,  the  sizing-room  is  an  apartment  set 
aside  for  the  operation  of  sizing  alone.  It  contains 
apparatus,  which  we  shall  now  describe  in  turn. 

1st.  A  furnace  of  mason  work  built  against  one  side 
of  the  room,  and  furnished  with  a  copper  caldron,  five 
feet  in  diameter  by  three  in  depth.  It  is  in  this  caldron 
that  the  size  is  made,  or  the  gelatine  extracted  from  the 
substances  which  contain  it,  and  of  which  we  shall  speak 
further  on. 

^  2d.  An  ozier  basket,  surrounded  by  an  iron  casing, 
which  gives  it  sufficient  solidity  to  allow  it  to  be  elevated 
or  depressed  at  will,  as  the  operation  may  require,  and 
supported  by  two  iron  chains,  fastened  by  their  four 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


135 


.  extremities  to  the  iron  cross-bars  of  the  casing.  The 
chains  are  united  in  their  middle  by  a  rope,  the  other 
extremity  of  which  is  wound  round  the  axle  of  a  wheel, 
firmly  fixed  upon  the  upper  floor. 

This  axle  is  horizontal,  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  re- 
volves upon  iron  spindles.  Around  it,  as  we  have  said, 
the  rope  sustaining  the  basket  is  wound,  after  passing 
through  a  hole  in  the  mantle  of  the  furnace.  In  order 
to  facilitate  the  management  of  the  basket,  which  is  ren- 
dered very  heavy  by  its  iron  casing  and  the  matters  con- 
taining the  gelatine,  a  wheel,  fifty  inches  in  diameter, 
revolves  at  the  other  Extremity  of  the  axle,  around.which 
is  wound  a  second  rope,  descending  to  the  side  of  the 
furnace  and  there  fastened  to  a  strong  iron  hook,  to  sus- 
tain the  basket  at  the  desired  height.  Those  who  have 
a  slight  notion  of  mechanics  will  at  once  perceive  the 
advantage  which  this  wheel,  with  a  diameter  which  may 
be  increased  at  will,  presents  in  diminishing  the  amount 
of  force  required.  With  the  proportions  we  have  indi- 
cated, the  amount  of  power  required  will  be  only  equal 
to  a  quarter  of  the  weight  of  the  basket  when  full,  the 
size  of  the  basket  being  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter 
by  two  in  depth,  so  as  to  allow  it  easily  to  be  contained 
in  the  caldron. 

Into  this  basket,  which  is  not  used  in  all  paper-mills, 
are  thrown  the  substances  containing  gelatine.  The 
advantage  of  this  arrangement  is,  that  the  materials 
called  scrolls,  the  boiling  of  which  furnishes  the  glue, 
can  be  withdrawn  at  pleasure  from  the  caldron,  thus 
preventing  them  from  mixing  with  and  making  the 
decoction  turbid,  which  it  is  important  to  keep  clear 
and  limpid,  and  enabling  us  to  ascertain  whether  they 
are  sufliciently  boiled,  or,  in  other  words,  have  furnished 
all  the  gelatine  they  are  capable  of  afi'ording. 


136  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

3d.  By  the  side  of  this  furnace  and  against  the  wall 
is  placed  a  copper,  or  simply  a  wooden  chest  2  metres 
(6.56  ft.)  long,  by  1  metre  (3.28  ft.)  wide,  and  20  centi- 
metres (7.86  inches)  deep.  This  chest  is  solidly  fastened 
and  hooked  with  iron,  and  rests  upon  three  wooden  cross- 
pieces.  On  the  side  nearest  the  furnace  is  placed  a 
square  frame,  sustaining  a  piece  of  blanket  or  woollen 
cloth,  for  filtering  the  gelatine.  The  blanket  is  fastened 
to  the  frame  by  small  iron  hooks,  and  supported  from 
below  by  a  few  slack  cords. 

4th.  Several  presses  may  be  seen  in  this  room,  which 
present  nothing  remarkable  except  in  their  arrangement, 
whiqh  will  be  explained  in  describing  the  operation  of 
sizing. 

5th.  And  lastly  a  copper  vessel  called  a  sizing  tub,  in 
which  the  operation  of  sizing  is  effected.  This  vessel 
is  1  metre  (3.28  ft.)  in  diameter,  and  541  millimetres 
(21.28  inches)  deep.  It  is  mounted  upon  an  iron  tripod 
8  inches  high,  under  which  is  placed  a  small  coal  furnace 
to  keep  the  gelatine  at  a  proper  temperature  during  the 
process  of  sizing. 

The  tub  is  placed  near  the  press,  so  that  the  size  in 
running  off  from  the  saturated  paper  may  return  to  it 
and  not  be  wasted  in  the  passage. 

Several  copper  basins,  each  having  two  handles,  are 
also  found  in  the  sizing-room.  They  are  for  general  use 
in  manipulating. 

§  2.  Method  of  Extracting  Gelatine. 

"Gelatine,"  says  Thenard,  "never  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  fluid  parts  of  animals,  but  all  their 
soft  and  solid  parts  contain  the  substances  suitable  for 
•   its  formation.    In  this  condition  it  is  found  in  the  muscu- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


137 


lar  fibre,  skin,  ligaments,  cartilages,  tendons,  and  apo- 
neuroses ;  the  membranes  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
gelatine,  and  it  constitutes  about  half  the  weight  of 
bones. 

"  Gelatine  is  heavier  than  water,  without  taste  or 
smell,  colorless,  and  without  reaction  upon  litmus  paper 
or  syrup  of  violets;  it  is,  therefore,  neither  acid  nor 
alkaline. 

"  Decomposed  by  fire,  gelatine  again  offers  us  the  same 
phenomena  as  these  substances,  but  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  them  by  certain  of  its  properties. 

"  This  material  is  very  soluble  in  boiling  water,  but 
very  sparingly  so  in  cold.  When  two  parts  and  a  half 
are  dissolved  in  a  hundred  parts  of  water,  the  liquid 
congeals  on  cooling.  The  jelly  sours  in  a  few  days, 
especially  in  summer ;  it  then  liquefies,  and  before  long 
takes  on  all  the  phenomena  of  putrid  fermentation. 

"  Gelatine  or  glue  is  generally  prepared  for  the  uses  of 
commerce  from  parings  of  hides,  parchment  and  gloves, 
and  from  the  hoofs  and  ears  of  oxen,  horses,  sheep,  and 
calves. 

"  These  substances,  after  being  cleaned  and  relieved  of 
their  fat  and  hair,  are  boiled  in  a  large  quantity  of  water 
for  a  long  time,  care  being  taken  to  remove  the  skum 
as  fast  as  it  appears,  and  its  formation  being  even  oc- 
casionally hastened  by  the  addition  of  a.lum  or  lime. 
After  this  the  liquid  is  passed  through  a  sieve,  allowed  to 
rest,  and  finally  decanted,  skimmed  again,  and  run  into 
wet  uncovered  moulds,  when  it  assumes  the  form  of  flat 
plates.  When  these  plates  are  perfectly  cool,  which  they 
generally  are  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours,  they  are 
taken  away,  cut  into  tablets,  and  the  operation  is  termi- 
nated by  placing  them  on  coarse  nets  in  some  warm  and 
well- ventilated  place. 


138  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


"  Gelatine  is  not  extracted  in  this  manner  from  bones. 
As  these  contain  much  phosphate  of  lime,  they  should 
first  be  brought  into  contact  with  liquid  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  is  renewed  if  necessary  at  the  end  of  eight 
days.  By  this  means  they  are  deprived  of  all  their  saline 
matters  and  become  elastic,  semi-transparent,  and  flexible. 
If  they  are  then  treated  with  boiling  water,  they  become 
almost  immediately  converted  into  glue.  Four  hours' 
boiling  will  be  sufficient,  and  the  remainder  of  the  ope- 
ration is  performed  in  the  manner  indicated  above. 

"  All  size  is  more  or  less  transparent.  Some  sorts  are 
of  a  blackish  and  some  of  a  reddish-brown,  while  others 
are  of  a  slightly  yellow-white.  The  most  transparent 
and  least  colored  are  the  purest,  and  these  kinds  are 
employed  by  the  paper-maker.  Glue  extracted  from 
bones  by  the  process  we  have  just  described,  and  which 
M.  D'Arcet  has  made  upon  a  large  scale,  is  much  supe- 
rior to  all  other,  and  is  even  as  handsome  as  the  best 
isinglass." 

This  is  the  process  employed  by  M.  D'Arcet,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  patent  taken  out  by  him,  January  14, 
1814,  and  which  expired  on  the  same  day,  1829. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  by  boiling  powdered  bones 
in  water,  twelve  or  fourteen  per  cent,  of  gelatine  may 
be  extracted,  and  that  this  method  has  already  been 
proposed  and  employed  on  a  large  scale  for  making  glue 
and  bone  soup;  but  it  is  also  well  knowti  that  bones 
contain  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  of  animal  matter ;  whence 
it  follows  that  by  the  known  method  about  thirty-five 
hundredths  of  a  hundred  kilogrammes  of  bones  are  lost. 
These  thirty-five  hundredths  of  dry  gelatine  are  very 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  and  the  residuum  which 
contains  them  is  abandoned  as  useless,  or  sold  only  for 
manure. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


139 


"My  process  has  nothing  in  common  with  that  of 
which  I  have  just  spoken  ;  it  consists  in  converting  into 
ghie  the  thirty-five  hundredths  of  cartilage  which  are 
lost  by  the  known  method. 

"I  operate  upon  fresh  bones,  or  upon  the  residuum  of 
bones,  after  they  have  been  treated  with  boiling  water 
only. 

"  If  the  bones  are  fresh,.!  begin  by  breaking  them  up 
to  extract  the  gelatine  they  may  yield  by  simple  boiling 
in  water ;  unless,  indeed,  I  should  find  it  more  economi- 
cal to  lose  the  gelatine,  which  might  be  obtained  by  this 
process. 

"  I  then  put  a  hundred  kilogrammes  (220.47  lbs.  avoir.) 
to  soak  in  deal  tanks  or  reservoirs,  lined  with  lead,  with 
four  hundred  kilogrammes  (881.88  lbs.)  of  muriatic  acid, 
diluted  with  water  till  it  marks  six  degrees  of  the  hy- 
drometer. The  whole  is  stirred  once  a  day,  and  when 
the  bones  are  well  softened,  I  wash  them  with  running 
water;  pass  them  through  the  press,  and  wash  them 
again  carefully.  The  cartilage  thus  obtained  may  be 
at  once  converted  into  glue,  or  desiccated  at  the  drying 
stove.  To  convert  this  material  into  jelly,  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  dissolve  it  in  boiling  water,  or  in  the  solution 
of  gelatine  already  obtained,  by  treating  the  bones  with 
boiling  water,  and  thus  to  bring  the  solution  to  the  re-  . 
quisite  degree  of  concentration.  This  solution  of  gela- 
tine stiffens  on  cooling.  To  be  considered  of  first  quality 
in  commerce,  it  should  contain  for  every  hundred  and 
ten  kilogrammes  (242.51  lbs.  avoir.)  of  dry  gelatine, 
eighty-six  kilogrammes  (189,59  lbs.)  of  water. 
.  "  If  the  cartilage  should  be  somewhat  difficult  to  dis- 
solve in  boiling  water,  it  is  because  the  washing  has 
been  carried  too  far.  It  would  then  be  necessary  to  add 
to  the  water  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 


140  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


acid,  or  simply  of  vinegar,  in  order  to  render  the  solution 
of  the  cartilage  very  prompt  and  complete.  When  the 
operation  is  well  managed  there  should  remain  no  resi- 
duum. 

"  To  convert  this  jelly  into  glue,  we  have  but  to  reduce 
the  solution  to  such  a  degree  of  concentration  that  it 
shall  contain  twenty-five  kilogrammes  (55.10  lbs.  avoir.) 
of  dry  glue,  and  seventy-five  kilogrammes  (165.35.  lbs.) 
of  water,  to  one  hundred  kilogrammes  (220.47  lbs.)  of 
the  solution.  It  is  then  run  into  moulds  and  cut  into 
tablets,  as  described  in  the  art  of  making  glue, 

"  The  washed  and  pressed  cartilage  may  be  desiccated 
by  exposing  it  to  the  air,  or  by  employing  a  drying  stove. 
In  this  condition  it  remains  unchanged  by  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere ;  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  and 
sent  to  great  distances.  This  substance  represents  an 
equal  weight  of  glue,  and  to  convert  it  into  jelly,  it  will 
suffice  to  put  it  to  soak  for  one  night,  and  then  treat  it 
with  boiling  water,  as  we  have  before  mentioned. 

"  The  cartilage,  when  strongly  pressed,  takes  up  very 
little  room  ;  is  easily  transported ;  sells  remarkably  well ; 
and  takes  the  place  of  the  raw  materials  commonly  em- 
ployed in  glue  manufactories. 

"  The  advantages  presented  by  this  process  are  very 
considerable.  1st.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  utilized,  which, 
for  want  of  use,  has  little  or  no  commercial  value,  and  of 
which  immense  quantities  are  wasted  every  day.  The 
same  is  true  in  regard  to  bones,  from  which  only  a  poor 
profit  has  as  yet  been  derived. 

"  2d.  From  a  quintal  of  bones  we  can  obtain  five  hun- 
dred pounds  of  good  jelly,  or  about  fifty  pounds  of  dry 
glue,  reduced  to  tablets ;  whereas,  by  the  process  em- 
ployed thus  far,  a  quintal  of  bones  only  yields,  with  great 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


141 


trouble  and  expense  in  fuel,  one  hundred  and  forty 
pounds  of  jelly,  or  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  of  dry  glue. 

"The  jelly,  prepared  by  this  means,  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  remaining  fresh  for  a  long  time ;  it  contains 
a  slight  excess  of  acid  and  a  little  oil,  which  guard  it 
against  the  rapid  changes,  generally  undergone  by  ani- 
mal size,  and  which  are  the  cause  of  such  large  annual 
losses  in  the  manufactories. 

"Bone  size  is,  besides  this,  entirely  inodorous,  and, 
being  almost  colorless  itself,  does  not  impair  the  shade 
of  the  dye-stuffs  with  which  it  is  mixed,  but  allows  them 
to  retain  all  their  brilliancy,  even  giving  them  a  softer 
tone,  which  I  believe  to  be  due  to  the  small  proportion 
of  oil  combined  with  the  sizing. 

"  To  conclude,  I  will  add  that  this  size,  if  carefully 
prepared,  may,  in  many  instances,  take  the  place  of  isin- 
glass, which  we  are  obliged  to  import  from  abroad,  and 
sell  at  a  very  high  rate." 

Our  desire  to  see  all  possible  improvements  introduced 
into  the  paper-mills  of  this  country,  has  induced  us  -to 
give  the  foregoing  literal  transcript  of  the  patent  taken 
out  by  M.  D'Arcet;  we  now  lay  before  the  reader  the 
actual  processes  employed  in  mills  worked  upon  the  old 
system,  in  order  to  obtain  size  for  their  own  use. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  substances  from  which 
gelatine  is  extracted,  and,  with  Thenard,  have  called  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  the  glue  we  obtain  is  of  different 
colors  and  different  quality,  in  accordance  with  that  of 
the  raw  material  employed.  The  paper-maker  desires 
to  obtain  the  whitest  possible  size  for  his  superfine 
papers;  he  therefore  employs  for  this  purpose  the  skins 
of  small  animals,  such  as  hares,  rabbits,  or  eels,  and  the 
parings  of  leather-dressers  and  parchment-makers.  For 
common  papers  he  uses  sheep's  feet,  the  ears  and  carti- 


142  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


lages  of  calves,  and  such  leather  parings  as  are  furnished 
by  the  tanner.  Lastly,  for  the  coarsest  kinds,  the  feet 
and  ears  of  oxen,  and  the  cartilages  of  old  animals  are 
employed. 

Paper-makers  take  care  to  sort  all  these  parings,  which 
they  classify  according  to  their  qualities,  especially  reject- 
ing any  rotten  pieces  of  leather,  which  might  infect  the  size 
while  boiling,  and  separating  the  lime  as  far  as  possible. 
After  this  sorting,  they  place  all  these  pieces,  cutting 
them  up  still  more  finely  if  they  think  necessary,  in  the 
basket  we  have  described  as  hanging  over  the  caldron. 
The  basket  is  let  down  by  means  of  the  wheel  and  the 
caldron  filled  with  water.  The  fire  is  then  lit  and  the 
material  slowly  boiled,  until  it  has  evidently  yielded  all 
the  gelatine  it  can.  The  fire  should  be  carefully  man- 
aged ;  at  first  it  should  be  quick  and  then  slackened. 
The  liquid  must  be  skimmed  and  the  boiling  kept  up 
equably,  as  a  good  housewife  would  do  in  preparing  soup. 
The  time  which  the  boiling  should  last  cannot  be  fixed, 
as  it  depends  upon  too  many  extremely  variable  circum- 
stances. 

The  process  completed,  the  basket  is  raised  and  fixed 
over  the  caldron  to  drain ;  the  fire  is  extinguished,  and 
the  liquid  left  for  some  time  to  itself  The  decoction  is 
drawn  off  from  the  caldron  by  means  of  a  faucet  while 
still  quite  warm.  The  workman  receives  the  liquid  in 
small  copper  basins  and  carries  it  to  the  strainer,  which 
he  has  already  prepared  over  the  chest,  in  order  to  filter 
it.  It  would  be  well  to  leave  the  filtrate  for  some  time 
in  the  tank  in  which  it  is  received,  in  order  to  allow  it 
to  settle  and  become  clear;  but  the  prejudice  of  nianu- 
facturers  is  against  this  practice,  which,  however,  as 
Desmarest  observes,  is  adopted  in  Holland. 

Before  being  applied  to  the  paper,  the  size  is  again 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


143 


filtered  as  it  is  poured  into  the  tub,  in  which  the  opera- 
tion of  sizing  we  are  about  to  describe  is  performed. 

It  will  be  useful  here  to  answer  a  question  often  asked 
us,  and  to  which  we  have  always  given  the  answer  we 
now  repeat.  Why,  it  is  said,  does  the  paper-maker  oc- 
cupy himself  in  preparing  si^e]  is  not  his  art  sufficiently 
complicated  1  does  it  not  require  enough  minute  atten- 
tion, without  his  being  obliged  to  add  to  it  a  branch  of 
industry,. presenting  in  itself  many  difficulties,  that  of  the 
manufacture  of  glue  1  Would  it  not  be  better  to  buy 
his  size  ready  madel  Does  not  his  interest  point  out 
this  course] 

It  would  be  perhaps  possible  to  mention  some  very 
rare,  cases,  in  which  economy  would  direct  the  paper- 
maker  to  buy  his  size  already  prepared,  instead  of  making 
it  himself ;  but  in  general  two  very  powerful  reasons  pre- 
vent him  from  so  doing.  We  have  indicated  the  mate- 
rials" used  in  preparing  the  different  kinds  of  size,  suited 
each  to  different  qualities  of  paper;  he  might  readily  be 
deceived  in  regard  to  these  materials.  The  paper-maker 
can  only  obtain  size  in  the  form  of  tablets,  adopted  to 
facilitate  its  transportation;  but  to  reduce  the  gelatine 
of  the  tablets,  the  manufacturer  has  already  been  obliged 
to  use  a  great  amount  of  fuel  in. evaporating  the  excess  of 
water,  and  a  long  and  laborious  operation  has  been  gone 
through  with  to  bring  these  tablets  to  the  degree  of  dry- 
ness requisite  to  prevent  them  from  undergoing  a  change 
during  transportation,  or  while  i^  store.  All  these 
various  manipulations  require  an  outlay,  which  has  to  be 
returned  with  some  profit  to  the  glue  manufacturer. 
Now  the  paper-maker  has  no  need  that  his  size  should 
be  reduced  to  tablets.  As  soon  as  his  liquid  is  suffi- 
ciently impregnated  with  gelatine  he  uses  it,  and  thus, 
by  making  his  own  size,  economizes  all  the  costs,  which 


144  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


the  labor  of  reducing  it  to  tablets  would  require.  In 
addition  to  this,  also,  he  is  enabled  to  use  whatever  raw 
materials  he  thinks  best. 

§  3.  Operation  of  Sizing. 

In  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  we  said  that  a 
caldron  or  tub,  in  which  the  operation  of  sizing  takes 
place,  is  situated  near  the  press,  so  that  the  size,  which 
runs  off  from  the  handful  of  leaves,  just  dipped  by  the 
workman  in  the  tub,  and  laid  on  the  stand  of  the  press, 
may  not  be  lost,  but  fall  back  into  the  same  vessel.  "We 
added  that  we  should  here  describe  this  stand,  so  that 
the  reader  might  obtain  a  clearer  notion  of  the  manner 
in.  which  the  drainage  from  the  press  is  effected. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  press-stand,  which  is  con- 
structed with  a  view  to  great  solidity,  is  raised  thirty 
inches  above  the  floor,  and  is  thirty-six  inches  long  by 
twenty-four  inches  broad  between  the  uprights.  This 
stand  is  surmounted  by  a  frame  two  inches  broad  on  all 
sides,  and  a  good  inch  in  thickness.  The  frame  is 
strongly  fixed  upon  the  stand  by  screw  bolts,  the  heads 
of  which  are  buried  in  the  frame  above,  and  fastened  by 
a  nut  under  the  table.  In  place  of  these  bolts,  strong 
wood  screws  may  be  used,  having  their  conical  heads 
likewise  buried  in  the  frame,  which  should  fit  the  upper 
surface  of  the  table  so  accurately  that  water  may  not  be 
able  to  pass  between,  them.  It  will  be  seen  that  by  this 
arrangement  the  press  stand  presents  a  regular  hollow 
eighteen  inches  broad  by  thirty  long. 

In  the  left  hand  corner  of  the  press-stand,  and  eigh- 
teen lines  below  the  lower  surface  of  the  frame,  a  hole 
is  pierced,  slanting  upwards,  and  opening  in  front  of  the 
inner  border  of  the  frame,  into  which  is  fitted  a  copper 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING.  145 


pipe,  projecting  far  enough  beyond  to  pour  the  excess 
of  fluid  continually  into  the  tub.  This  pipe  should  be 
well  cemented  to  the  edge  of  the  hole,  so  that  no  liquid 
may  be  able  to  run  off  by  any  other  outlet. 

The  workman  generally  stands  at  the  tub,  with  the 
press  at  his  right  hand,  and  on  his  left  a  bench  support- 
ing the  leaves,  just  as  they  have  been  carried  from  the 
drying-room  after  the  stiffness  has  been  taken  out.  The 
tub  is  then  filled  with  te^id  size,  and  the  furnace  placed 
under  it.  A  quantity  of  alum  is  thrown  in,  varying 
according  to  time  and  circumstances,  as  we  shall  explain 
in  the  general  remarks  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  The 
alum  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  well  stirred  to  mix 
it  with  the  gelatine.  The  alum  prevents  the  size  from 
decomposing,  and  preserves  it  for  a  considerable  time. 
Some  manufacturers  add  white  vitriol  (sulphate  ^f  zinc). 

The  woiiiman  places  by  his  side  three  or  four  wooden 
instruments,  called  pallets,  by  means  of  which  he  man- 
ages the  leaves  of  paper  in  the  manipulations  of  sizing. 
These  pallets  are  pieces  of  wood,  flat  upon  one  face, 
rounded  on  the  other,  and  slightly  conical  at  the  two 
-  extremities.  The  shape  of  this  instrument  may  be 
readily  imagined  by  considering  it  as  formed  of  a  cylin- 
der, three  or;  four  inches  in  diameter  by  twenty- two  in 
length,  terminated  at  each  end  by  a  blunt  elongated 
cone,  then  cut  in  two  by  a  plain  parallel  to  its  axis,  and 
by  this  division  forming  two  pallets. 

Standing  in  front  of  the  tub,  the  workman  takes  a 
handful  of  paper  in  his  left  hand,  and  supports  it  from 
beneath  by  one  of  these  pallets ;  he  seizes  the  leaves  on 
ftie  opposite  side  with  his  right  hand,  and  takes  care  to 
separate  them  with  the  fingers  of  that  hand,  in  order 
that  the  size  may  the  more  readily  penetrate  between 
them;  he  submerges  that  entire  end  of  the  paper  by 
10 


146  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


dipping  his  hand  into  the  size ;  he  then  lifts  the  bunch 
with  his  left  hand,  and  holds  it  above  the  tub  to  drip, 
which  brings  the  leaves  together.  The  end  held  in  the 
right  hand  is  allowed  to  rest  upon  a  second  pallet,  which 
generally  floats  upon  the  size,  while  with  a  third  he  seizes 
it  above,  so  as  to  catch  it  between  the  two,  and  lets  go 
the  other  end,  which  he  held  in  the  left  hand.  He  again 
separates  the  leaves  with  his  fingers  as  before,  and 
plunges  his  left  hand  into  the  size  with  this  end.  The 
bunch  of  leaves  is  held  suspended  for  some  time  to  allow 
the  size  to  runoff  and  the  pages  to  adhere;  and  the  - 
workman,  after  having  raised  the  lower  end  with  his  left 
hand,  carries  the  lot  with  both  hands  to  the  hollow  sur- 
face of  the  press-stand. 

This  operation  is  continued  until  ten  or  twelve  hand- 
fuls  haf  e  been  sized.  A  turn  is  then  given  to  the  press, 
which  causes  the  size  to  penetrate  the  substance  of  the 
paper,  and  the  excess  of  the  liquid  flows  back  into  the 
tub  by  the  pipe  we  have  already  mentioned.  This 
operation  requires  considerable  care ;  for,  if  the  paper 
is  pressed  too  hard,  an  excessive  amount  of  gelatine  is 
thereby  expelled,  and  the  interior  of  the  handfuls  of 
leaves  would  remain  unsized.  From  exact  experiments 
it  has  been  estimated  that  a  quantity  of  unsized  paper, 
weighing  eighty-six  pounds,  absorbs,  in  sizing  six  pounds 
of  dry  gelatine. 

§  4.  Drying  after  Sizing,  the  Dutch  Method  prefer- 
able TO  the  French. 

We  have  observed  that,  when  the  process  of  sizing  % 
completed,  the  workman  presses  the  entire  mass  of  pa- 
per, gently  and  slowly,  not  carrying  the  operation  too 
far,  so  that  the  size  may  have  time  to  become  fixed  in 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


147 


the  substance  of  the  leaves.  The  paper  is  only  left  long 
enough  under  the  press  to  insure  a  uniform  penetration 
of  the  size,  without  allowing  it  to  dry,  as,  in  that  case, 
there  would  be  danger  of  the  leaves  becoming  so  tightly 
glued  together,  as  to  be  no  longer  separable. 

When  the  moment  of  taking  oif  the  pressure  has  ar- 
rived, the  paper,  still  wet,  is  delivered  to  women  who 
separate  it  sheet  by  sheet,  and  thus  hang  it  upon  the 
tribbles,  or  ropes,  in  the  drying-room,  by  means  of  T 
shaped  lifters,  beginning  from  above.  These  lifters,  with 
handles  varying  in  length  with  the  height  of  the  tribbles, 
are  employed  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  mounting  upon 
trestles.  The  entire  length  of  one  line  is  covered  with 
leaves  before  beginning  upon  the  next. 

There  are  a  great  many  mills,  in  which,  instead  of 
using  lifters  with  poles  of  various  lengths,  so  as  to  work 
from  the  ground,  after  the  manner  of  the  Dutch,  they 
still  employ  benches,  or  trestles,  of  different  heights,  to 
hold  the  trays,  on  which  the  •  paper  is  brought  to  the 
drying-room,  as  well  as  to  enable  the  women  to  reach 
the  tribbles.  The  Dutch  method,  however,  is  preferable, 
as  being  more  economical  and  less  dangerous. 

In  France,  we  have  the  defect  of  hanging  the  leaves 
on  the  lines,  one  by  one,  while  still  warm.  The  paper 
dries  Very  rapidly,  and  loses  by  this  ill-advised  evapora- 
tion a  great  part  of  the  size,  which  had  penetrated  its 
interior  and  covered  its  surfaces.  The  openings  into  the 
drying-room  are  not  so  arranged  as  to  be  closed  herme- 
tically, the  external  temperature  easily  pervades  the 
room,  the  desiccation  goes  on  too  rapidly,  and  the  paper 
assumes  that  granulated  appearance,  which  it  was  the 
object  of  this  process  to  remove. 

It  has  been  thought  that  this  defect  might  be  reme- 
died by  sizing  early  in  the  morning,  and  hanging  the 


148 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


paper  to  dry  at  once.  This  method,  however,  is  only 
palliative,  as  is  judiciously  observed  by  Desmarest.  The 
heat  of  the  day  comes  on  bfefore  the  operation  is  finished, 
and  the  drying  has  the  same  bad  results  as  before.  A 
thunder  storm,  supervening  during  the  process,  increases 
the  difficulty,  and,  as  is  well  known,  often  sours  the  size, 
so  as  entirely  to  prevent  its  action,  or  allow  it  to  be  only 
imperfectly  produced.  By  adopting  the  Dutch  method 
of  drying,  nothing  is  to  be  feared  from  extreme  heat. 

The  Dutch  have  a  great  advantage  over  us  in  the  pro- 
cesses they  employ  for  the  preparation  of  paper  after 
sizing.  They  have  had  the  good  sense  to  introduce  the 
operation  known  as  the  exchange,  which  is  performed  on 
the  paper  as  it  leaves  the  sizing-room.  They  operate  as 
follows: — 

"  When  the  paper  has  remained  long  enough  under 
the  press,  the  workmai^^  carries  it  away,  in  portions  of 
one  or  two  handfuls,  and  distributes  it  along  the  table ; 
he  then  begins  with  the  nearest  lot  and  exchanges  the 
leaves  one  by  one,  lifting  them  by  the  corner,  so  as  to 
form  a  new  pile  which  differs  from  the  fi^'st,  only  in  that 
the  surfaces,  which  before  touched  and  had  been  pressed 
against  each  other,  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  sur- 
faces of  other  leaves.  By  thus  mixing  the  leaves  in  a 
new  distribution  each  surface  is  detached  from  those  of 
the  contiguous  leaves,  to  which  it  adhered,  and  applied 
to  others,  against  which  it  is  again  pressed.  It  is  of  lit- 
tle consequence  whether  the  paper  is  still  warm  or  not, 
so  long  as  it  is  wet.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to 
see  that  the  leaves  are  not  replaced  under  the  press,  after 
the  exchange,  until  the  paper  is  cool;  for  if  still  warm, 
the  size  w^ould  be  fluid  and  liable  to  be  expelled  from  the 
leaves  by  the  action  of  the  press,  or  to  extravasate  un- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


149 


equally  upon  the  surface,  thus  producing  irregularities  . 
and  destroying  the  advantage  of  the  exchange. 

"It  is  better,"  adds  Desmarest,  who  furnishes  us  with 
these  judicious  observations,  "that  the  paper,  while  still 
warmed  by  the  size,  should  acquire  a  certain  amount  of 
consistency  during  the  exchange.  The  size  should  also 
become  firm,  while  the  material  is  cooling,  so  that  the 
result  of  this  operation  may  be  perfected  under  the  press, 
which  terminates  it  by  giving  to  the  paper  a  dead  polish, 
very  suitable  for  writing  or  drawing  purposes. 

"From  these  considerations,  it  seems  to  me,"  continues 
our  author,  "  that  the  advantages  presented  by  the  ex- 
change after  sizing,  render  the  operation  of  great  im- 
portance. In  Holland,  it  is  performed  upon  every  kind 
of  paper.  The  second  exchange  deserves  to  be  the  more 
carefully  .attended  to,  as  its  effect  remains  invariably 
impressed  upon  the  paper,  and  is  not  disturbed  by  any 
subsequent  operation. 

"I  ought  to  say,"  Desmarest  remarks, "  that  in  France, 
where  they  do  not  seem  to  pay  so  much  attention  to  soft- 
ening the  face  of  the  paper,  it  is  at  the  time  when  the 
women  throw  the  sized  leaves  upon  the  lifting  poles 
that  I  have  noticed  the  greatest  amount  of  roughness. 
The  leaves  are  separated  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the 
adhesion  produced  by  drying.  It  can  be  seen,  by  taking 
a  position  opposite  to  the  light,  that  the  paper  bristles 
with  an  infinite  number  of*little  hairs,  which  the  adhe- 
sion, and  the  sudden  efibrt  at  separating  the  leaves,  has  * 
produced  over  the  whole  extent  of  their  surface.  After- 
wards, when  dried  quickly  and  thoroughly,  the  paper 
retains  the  same  inequalities  which  are  only  imperfectly 
removed  by  the  finishing  press ;  for  when  the  leaves  are 
subjected  to  its  operation,  they  have  become  so  stiff  and 
hard  that  these  fibrillse  can  no  longer  re-enter  their  sub- 


150  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

stance.  The  Dutch,  on  the  contrary,  gather  their  leaves 
before  they  are  so  dry,  and  while  they  are  still  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  the  finishing  press,  which  imparts  to 
them  that  beautiful  lu'stre  so  much  esteemed  throughout 
all  Europe." 

§5.  Some  Important  Observations  upon  Sizing. 

The  learned  and  judicious  observer,  Desmarest,  has 
pursued  the  subject  of  paper-making  with  so  much  care, 
both  in  France  and  in  Holland,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
say  anything  more  to  the  point  than  what  he  has  given 
in  his  work  on  the  art  of  making  paper.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, quote  again  from  this  author. 

"In  French  mills,  when  the  paper  is  about  to  be  sized, 
it  is  gathered  from  the  tribbles  without  much  care  as  to 
the  stage  of  dryness  it  has  arrived  at;  and  yet  most  manu- 
facturers know  by  experience  that  the  sheets,  when  too 
dry,  take  the  sizing  less  readily,  and  that  this  material 
penetrates  them  more  freely  and  is  distributed  more 
uniformly,  when  they  still  retain  a  small  amount  of 
moisture ;  but  the  construction  of  the  drying-rooms,  as 
we  have  already  observed,  not  allowing  them  to  take 
advantage  of  this  observation,  they  make  no  practical  use 
of  it. 

"  Another  disadvantage  of  paper  too  rapidly  dried,  is 
that,  in  this  condition,  it  forms  a  kind  of  hard  board, 
which  cannot  be  made  soft  enough  to  absorb  the  requisite 
amount  of  size.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  in 
dipping  such  paper  into  the  size,  it  should  only  penetrate 
the  leaves  with  difficulty  and  very  unequally. 

"In  the  Dutch  milk  this  does  not  occur.  There,  the 
leaves  are  first  gathered  from  the  drying-room,  the  stifi- 
ness  taken  out  of  them,  and  their  adhesion  greatly  de- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


151 


stroyed  by  opening  the  spurs.  The  workman,  who  at- 
tends to  the  sizing,  then  distributes  them  into  handfuls, 
ready  to  be  dipped  into  the  sizing-tub.  It  seems  that  in 
this  division  the  object  is  to  remove  any  obstacle  to  the 
absorption  of  size ;  for  the  paper  of  fermented  pulp  takes 
the  size  with  great  difficulty,  even  when  the  leaves  are 
exposed  to  its  action  almost  one  by  one.  This  difficulty 
is  so  great  that,  if  bunches  of  many  leaves,  strongly  ad- 
herent, as  they  are  with  us,  and  manufactured  of  fer- 
mented pulp,,  were  plunged  into  the  tub,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  make  the  size  penetrate  them. 

"  Besides  these  precautions,  care  is  taken  to  join  with 
each  handful  two  sheets  of  brown  paper,  of  the  same  form 
as  the  paper  to  be  sized.  This  brown  paper,  which  is 
firm,  solid,  and  already  sized,  serves  to  support  the  hand- 
ful of  leaves  on  each  side. 

"  The  Dutch  have  nothing  peculiar  in  their  method  of 
preparing  size,  but  they  differ  from  us  in  that  they  strain 
it  after  boiling,  as  soon  as  the  scrolls  and  other  coarse 
materials  have  settled  to  the  bottom  of  the  caldron,  in 
which  the  decoction  has  taken  place.  They  set  it  to 
cool  in  a  wooden  tub,  or  copper  basin,  of  some  size  but 
not  deep.  While  the  size  is  cooling,  it  gradually  de- 
posits on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  a  sediment,  consisting 
of  materials  which  would  be  prejudicial  to  its  transpa- 
rency and  give  the  paper  a  yellowish  tint.  When  the  size 
is  to  be  used,  it  is  poured  into  a  caldron  and  heated 
over  to  the  required  degree.  This  practice  is  entirely 
opposed  to  the  ideas  of  most  French  manufacturers,  who 
pretend  that  by  heating  over  the  size  we  weaken  it  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  it  no  longer  serviceable.  The 
result  of  this  prejudice  is  that  in  our  mills  the  size  is 
rarely  strained,  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  scrolls,  and 
is  generally  used  while  still  charged  with  foreign  matters 


152  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


which  sensibly  tarnish  the  whiteness  of  our  most  delS;ate 
papers.  The  success  of  the  opposite  plan  pursued  by  the 
Dutch,  proves  that  we  might  allow  the  size  to  attain  all 
its  transparency  by  well  watched  and  very  gradual  cool- 
ing, without  running  any  great  risk  of  weakening  it." 

We  do  not  wish  to  change  anything  in  this  last  obser- , 
vation  of  Desmarest's,  but  we  ought  to  add  that  at  the 
time  we  were  visiting  different  paper  mills,  with  a  view 
of  introducing  among  them  the  improvements  we  thought 
most  commonly  in  use,  we  found  this  prejudice  almost 
universally  prevalent.  We  wished  to  assure  ourselves 
whether  it  had  any  foundation  in  fact,  and  therefore  took 
two  litres  (1.76  quart)  of  freshly  made  size,  perfectly 
clear  and  heated  to  the  proper  point.  .  With  this  pre- 
paration we  sized  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  allowed  the  rest 
of  the  liquid  to  cool  for  twenty-four  hours.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  we  warmed  over  the  solution  to  the  required 
degree,  dipped  into  it  a  second  sheet  of  paper,  and  so  re- 
peated the  operation  twelve  times,  allowing  twenty-four 
hours  to  intervene  between  each  experiment,  in  order  to 
permit  the  size  to  become  thoroughly  cooled  each  time. 
We  had  taken  care  to  number  the  results  of  this  series 
of  experiments,  and  it  was  ascertained  that  the  twelfth 
leaf  was  as  well  sized  as  the  first,  and  that  the  size  had, 
therefore,  undergone  no  deterioration. 

We  wished  to  ascertain  from  the  residuum  whether  the 
size  would  alter,  and,  if  so,  what  might  be  the  cause  of 
the  change.  We  therefore  warmed  the  solution  ovtr 
several  times,  after  having  allowed  it  to  cool.  As  long 
as  we  did  not  raise  the  temperature  above  16°  Reaumur, 
or  20°  Cent.  (68°  Fahr.),that  at  which  common  paper 
is  sized,  the  solution  did  not  change ;  but  when  the  heat 
had  reached  60°  (140°  Fahr.)  it  began  to  deteriorate, 
especially  if  warmed  rapidly.   By  this  means  I  convinced 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


153 


the  manufacturers,  that  with  some  precautions  we  can, 
and  ought,  to  imitate  the  Dutch. 

Desmarest  continues  thus :  "  In  Holland  the  workman 
takes  the  leaves  of  paper  by  handfuls  and  plunges  them 
into  a  tub  filled  with  warm  and  clarified  size,  separating 
them,  as  we  have  already  seen,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
introduction  of  the  liquid  to  all  their  surfaces ;  indeed, 
to  this  object  tend  all  the  little  manipulations  the  work- 
man performs,  during  the  process  of  dipping.  • 

"  It  is  necessary  that  the  brown  paper  should  hold  the 
leaves  in  position,  as  the  workman  turns  and  returns  the 
bunch  in  every  direction ;  for  during  these  motions,  the 
outside  sheets  no  longer  adhering  to  the  inner  ones, 
would  float  loosely  in  the  liquid,  thus  occasioning  breaks. 
This  precaution  was  suggested  by  the  long  stay  the  Dutch 
paper  is  obliged  to  make  in  the  tub  before  it  absorbs 
enough  of  the  fluid. 

"  It  is  not,  however,  on  account  of  any  danger  of  the 
paper  becoming  too  soft  through  the  action  of  the  size ; 
for  it  always  preserves  enough  firmness  for  transporta- 
tion, after  having  absorbed  the  requisite  amount  of  this 
material ;  nor  did  I  ever  notice  that  a  single  sheet  was 
broken  during  the  sizing,  and  stiU  less,  therefore,  should 
we  look  for  this  accident  in  bunches  of  several  leaves. 
These  mishaps,  which  are  common  enough  with  us  where 
fermented  pulp  is  used,  show  that  it  is  to  the  nature 
and  composition  of  this  material  that  these  differences 
are  due. 

"  Whenjthe  bunches  of  leaves  are  sufficiently  sized,  they 
are  withdrawn  from  the  tub  accompanied  by  the  brown 
papers,  which  follow  them  under  the  press.  The  quan- 
tity of  liquid,  which  of  itself  dripped  from  the  paper 
when  lifted  up  after  sizing,  was  much  less  abundant 


154  PRACTICAL.  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

than  what  now  drains  from  these  masses  of  rotten  and 
spungy  pulp. 

"  When  the  paper  is  put  under  the  press,  it  is  first  acted 
on  gently  and  then  with  more  or  less  force,  according  to 
the  strength  and  capacity  of  the  material.  The  different 
shades  of  these  conditions  may  be  conjectured  from  the 
time  it  has  taken  the  paper  to  become  saturated  with 
size ;  the  longer  it  has  required,  the  more  strongly  should 
it  b§  pressed,  in  order  to  force  the  sizing  principle  into 
the  substance  uniformly,  and  at  the  same  time  to  expel 
the  surplus  fluid. 

"  Although  the  Dutch  paper  absorbs  size  with  difficulty, 
it  is  enabled  to  take  up  enough  by  the  long  stay  it  makes 
in  the  tub.  Its  capacity  in  this  respect,  however,  is  very 
much  less  than  that  of  our  paper;  but  it  holds  on  so 
tenaciously  to  what  it  does  contain,  that  the  smaller 
amount  of  size  is  sufficient.  This  kind  of  paper  gives 
up  very  little  liquid  under  pressure,  and  it  may  be  re- 
marked also,  that  after.it  is  once  swollen  with  size, 
through  its  own  elasticity,  the  paper  loses  very  little  of 
its  volume  either  under  the  press,  or  while  drying.  The 
reverse  is  true  of  the  paper  made  from  fermented  pulp, 
which  after  swelling  with  the  liquid,  loses  much  in  thick- 
ness while  passing  through  the.,  press  and  the  drying 
room. 

"The  Dutch  paper  is  allowed  to  remain  at  least  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  under  the  press,  after  which  it  is 
taken  away  in  packages,  of  which  the  sheets  of  brown 
paper  always  serve  to  determine  the  thickness,  and  these 
are  arranged  in  piles  around  the  table,  intended  for  the 
process  of  exchange,  in  order  that  the  workmen  engaged 
in  this  operation  may  be  enabled  to  divide  their  labor." 

The  reader  who  might  visit  most  of  the  French  paper- 
mills  after  having  thought  over  what  has  just  been  said, 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


155 


would  be  exceedingly  surprised  at  seeing  that  our  manu- 
facturers have  paid  no  attention  to  the  exact  and  lumi-  ' 
nous  descriptions  given  by  Desmarest,  that  learned  and 
indefatigable  man,  who  for  so  long  a  time  studied  the 
processes  employed  to  perfect  the  manufacture  of  paper 
among  the  ingenious  people  of  Holland. 

For  about  a  half  a  century  his  observations  and  minute 
details  have  been  before  the  public.  His  work  on  the 
art  of  paper-making  is  considerably  known,  and  was 
printed  in  1788.  We  have  ourselves,  in  the  numerous 
manufactories  we  have  visited,  evinced  our  surprise  that, 
especially  in  the  operation  of  sizing,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  important  ones  of  paper-making,  they 
have  not  adopted  the  Dutch  method,  which  is  very  sure 
and  economical.  "We  have  always  found  indifference 
and  unchangeable  attachment  to  their  old  routine,  which 
will  not  allow  them  to  try  the  few  simple  experiments 
necessary  to  convince  them  at  once. 

The  English,  our  rivals  in  the  arts,  have  not  been  so 
obstinate ;  a  young  Swiss  manufacturer,  who  made  quite 
a  long  journey  in  England  in  1831,  and  there  visited  a 
large  number  of  paper-mills  as  an  enlightened  observer, 
told  me  that  the  Dutch  processes,  which  he  understood 
thoroughly  from  having  visited  their  manufactories,  were 
everywhere  adopted  throughout  Great  Britain.  He 
had  found  the  English  very  much  superior  to  the  French 
paper,  and  said  that  he  was  about  to  return  home  after 
having  travelled  two  years,  to  introduce  into  his  own 
paper-mill  all  the  improvements  he  had  observed  in  his 
frequent  excursions. 

Let  us  continue  to  follow  the  remarks  of  Desmarest 
upon  this  subject,  which  are  too  important  not  to  be 
placed  before  the  reader. 

When  the  paper  has  been  sized,  exchanged,  and  left 


156  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


four  or  five  hours  under  the  press,  it  is  withdrawn  and 
*  carried  to  the  drying-room.  There  it  is  distributed 
along  the  tribbles,  in  spurs  of  two,  three,  or  five  sheets 
according  to  their  size ;  the  smaller  kinds  by  fives  and  the 
larger  by  twos  only.  This  hanging  is  accomplished  with 
the  greatest  ease  by  means  of  lifting  poles,  long  enough 
to  enable  the  women  to  re^ch  the  different  tiers  of  ropes, 
as  we  have  already  pointed  out.  In  this  state  the  paper 
does  very  well  and  does  not  suffer  any  sensible  waste  ; 
because  the  leaves  mutually  protect  each  other  from 
drying  too  suddenly.  As  the  size  has  already  solidified 
and  become  fixed  on  the  surface  of  the  paper  during  the 
entire  operation  of  exchange,  the  insensible  and  gradual 
progress  of  the  drying  process  only  renders  perfect  the 
good  results  already  obtained. 

The  Dutch,  by  the  exchange  after  sizing,  and  by  hang- 
ing their  paper  in  spurs,  avoid  the  more  laborious  and 
hazardous  method  of  the  French. 

Although  French  paper  is  in  general  very  fiabby, 
especially  after  leaving  the  sizing-tub,  still  the  result  of 
our  system  is  that  we  are  obliged  to  separate  each  leaf 
of  the  handful,  at  that  stage  of  the  opieration,  and  thus 
to  hang  them  singly ;  otherwise  we  should  only  obtain, 
after  drying,  a  kind  of  board,  or  an  aggregation --of  leaves 
stuck  tightly  together,  instead  of  thin  and  delicate  sheets. 

"  In  Holland  the  facility  of  manipulation,  even  after 
sizing,  enables  the  exchange  to  be  introduced,  which,  as 
far  as  separating  the  leaves  is  concerned,  resembles  some- 
what our  system  of  drying  them  one  by  one,  but  which 
is  very  far  from  causing'  the  same  inconvenience,  either 
in  its  effects,  or  in  the  method  of  execution.  In  the  first 
place  the  manipulations  of  the  exchange  after  sizing  are 
less  laborious,  and  require  fewer  hands,  than  those  of 
the  corresponding  operation  in  France.    Three  men  in 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


157 


Holland  can  do  the  work  which  four  could  not  accom- 
plish in  our  own  country.  Less  time  is  needed  to  ex- 
change the  sized  paper,  to  press  it,  and  finally  to  hang  it 
to  dry  in  spurs,  than  merely  to  hang  the  same  amount  in 
France,  after  having  separated  the  leaves  in  their  flabby 
and  adherent  condition. 

"  Thus,  by  following  the  Dutch  system,  we  obtain,  not 
merely  the  good  results  of  the  exchange,  but  also  an 
economy  of  labor.  All  our  manipulations  after  sizing 
are  those  of  absolute  necessity,  and  none  of  them  have 
in  view  the  improvement  of  the  product.  We  hurry  on 
the  work  without  thinking  that  the  paper  is  deteriorated 
by  imperfectly  performed  operations. 

"  We  have  seen  how  the  rapid  separation  of  the  freshly 
sized. leaves  raises  a  hairy  coat  on  their  surfaces,  and  how 
much  coarser  the  paper  is  thus  rendered  in  French  mills. 
We  also  remarked,  that  these  irregularities,  when  after- 
wards too  rapidly  dried,  remained  fixed  in  this  state.  It 
is  not,  therefore,  astonishing  that  the  product  of  all  these 
ill-advised  operations  is  stiff,  dry,  and  without  softness 
of  grain,  instead  of  the  firm  and  supple  material,  with  an 
even  and  polished  face,  which  might  have  been  obtained, 
as  the  result  of  the  processes  we  have  described. 

"  If  we  add  the  breaks  and  other  defects,  which  are 
produced  by  hanging  the  paper  in  the  drying-room,  leaf 
by  leaf,  after  sizing,  notwithstanding  the  great  dexterity 
of  our  workwomen,  we^ shall  be  more  surprised  still  at 
the  advantage  which  the  Dutch  have  obtained  from  the. 
exchange.  Besides  the  leaves,  entirely  broken  and 
thrown  away,  how  many  we  see  with  edges  ragged,  or 
torn  off  by  the  continual  efi'ort  which  is  necessary  in 
this  long  and  laborious  process  of  separation. 

"  It  is  true,  that  it  is  to  the  nature  of  their  unfer- 
mented  pulp  that  the  Dutch  owe  their  advantage  in 


158  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


abandoning  our  method  of  drying  leaf  by  leaf;  because 
their  paper  adapts  itself  to  all  the  manipulations  which 
are  required  by  the  process  they  have  so  happily  substi- 
tuted for  our  method  of  drying ;  whereas  with  our 
rotten  pulp  we  are  unable  to  adopt  their  system  without 
inconvenience,  although  our  paper  stands  so  much  in 
need  of  it." 

From  all  we  have  said  of  sizing,  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
is  ouQ  of  the  most  difficult  and  uncertain  operations  of 
paper-making.  We  are  frequently  obliged  to  begin 
anew,  either  by  the  season,  the  adverse  h^jgrometrical 
condition  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  temperature  of  the 
size  itself.  If  the  size  is  too  hot  it  injures  the  paper;  if 
too  cold  it  will  not  permeate  it ;  if  too  thick  it  attaches 
itself  only  to  the  surfaces  and  runs  off  when  the  paper  is 
dry ;  and  lastly,  if  too  thin  the  sizing  will  be  insufficient. 
The  atmosphere  also  takes  a  most  important  part  in  the 
process,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  excellent  article 
on  the  sizing  of  paper  by  MM.  D'Arcet  and  Merimee, 
which  we  transcribe  literally.  It  will  throw  mu6h  light 
on  this  important  subject. 

§  6.  Appendix  upon  Sizing. 

The  "Societe  d'Encouragement,"  of  Paris,  commis- 
sioned MM.  D'Arcet  and  Merimee,  in  1813,  to  investi- 
gate the  means  of  improving  the^ sizing  of  paper.  These 
learned  men,  after  having  gone  over  a  great  many  mills 
and  collected  a  great  many  facts,  published  instructions 
upon  this  subject,  which  they  had  drawn  up  in  1815, 
and  already  communicated,  in  manuscript,  to  a  number 
of  manufacturers.  These  instructions  upon  the  theory 
of  sizing  are  incorporated  in  the  26th  vol.  of  the  trans- 
actions of  this  society,  page  439. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING.  159 


"Hemp,  flax,  and  all  other  vegetable,  fibrous  sub- 
stances, of  which  paper  may  be  made,  contain,  in  larger 
or  smaller  quantities,  a  kind  of  gluten,^  which,  if  the 
proportion  is  sufficient,  may  take  the  place  of  size  and 
render  the  paper  impermeable  to  ink. 

"  This  matter  is  so  abundant  in  raw  hemp  and  flax, 
that  paper  made  of  tow  is  transparent  and  naturally 
sized.  So  tenacious  is  this  substance,  that  the  repeated 
action  of  lyes  does  not  entirely  remove  it,  so  that  there 
still  remains  a  certain  proportion  of  it  in  old  linen,  and  * 
nothing  but  putrid  fermentation  will  entirely  destroy  it. 

"  In  Holland  and  England  rags  are  not  fermented, . 
but  in  France  this  kind  of  maceration  is  employed ;  not 
only  in  small  mills,  when  their  inadequate  means  of  tri- 
turation render  it  necessary,  but  even  in  those  where  the 
rags  are  reduced  by  means  of  engines. 

"  This  is  the  principal  cause  to  which  we  must  attri- 
bute our  neighbor's  superiority  in  the  matter  of  sizing. 
Their  unfermented  pulp  still  contains  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  gluten,  and  produces  paper  rendered  impermeable 
by  a  comparatively  weak  size ;  whereas  a  much  stronger  ' 
solution  is  insufficient  for  our  papers  manufactured  from 
rotten  pulp. 

"  Drying  too  rapidly  after  sizing  is  another  one  of  the 
circumstances,  which  are  opposed  to  the  success  of  the 
operation.  The  Dutch  sheds  are  much  better  arranged 
than  ours  to  resist  the  eff'ects  of  the  drying  winds  of 
summer. 

"  To  these  preliminary  ideas  we  will  add  an  account 

*  "  We  believe  we  may  use  the  word  gluten,"  say  these  authors, 
"although  the  material  we  refer  to  does  not  resemble  the  gluten  of  • 
flour  ;  but  like  it  this  substance  partakes  of  the  nature  of  animal  mat- 
ter, as  ammonia  is  disengaged  from  the  rags  during  fermentation." 


160  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


of  several  facts,  a  knowledge  of  which  it  seems  to  us  may 
throw  some  light  upon  the  theory  of  sizing. 

"Size  alone,  when  sufficiently  concentrated  to  render 
the  paper  transparent,  does  not  render  it  impermeable 
to  ink.  In  order  that  it  shall  produce  this  effect,  it  is 
necessary  to  combine  it  with  a  certain  amount  of  alum. 

"  When  alum  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  glue,  the 
liquid  thickens  and  appears  to  coagulate  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, that  it  can  with  difficulty  be  stirred,  but  liquefies 
•  again  on  the  addition  of  water.  In  trying  the  experi- 
ment with  warm  size,  the  solution  will  have  to  be  more 
concentrated  in  order  that  coagulation  may  take  place. 

"  If  size  mixed  with  alum  is  left  on  the  fire,  a  pellicle 
appears  on  the  surface  which  grows  thicker  and  thicker, 
and  after  being  removed  is  succeeded  by  another,  and  so 
on  till  the  whole  mass  of  size  may  be  converted  into  pel- 
licles. 

"  These  pellicles  do  not  liquefy  at  the  simple  heat  of  the 
water-bath,  at  which  gelatinized  size  melts.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  employ  a  higher  temperature,  and  this  skum  is, 
therefore,  in  our  mills  thrown  back  into  the  caldron  with 
the  raw  materials  after  the  alum  is  added. 

"  If  a  sheet  of  paper  impregnated  with  alum  is  dipped 
into  a  solution  of  size,  not  yet  mixed  with  that  material, 
it  becomes  coated  with  coagulated  size,  which  crumbles 
under  the  fingers  and  no  longer  retains  its  adhesiveness. 

"  Alum,  therefore,  diminishes  the  solubility  of  size. 
The  action  of  the  atmosphere  appears  also  to  be  a  neces- 
sary condition  of  this  effect;  for  if,  instead  of  a  single 
aluminated  leaf  a  number  of  them  are  dipped,  the  coagu- 
lation only  takes  place  on  the  exterior  leaves,  antj  not  at 
all  upon  those  in  the 'centre  of  the  bunch. 

"The  action  of  the  atmosphere  is  observable  under 
other  circumstance^. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


161 


"We  exposed  size  mixed  with  alum  to  a  temperature 
of  five  or  six  degrees  (41°  to  43°  Fahrenheit)  for  one 
night,  and  the  next  morning  melted  it.  There  sepa- 
rated from  it  a  watery  fluid,  which  gave  an  abundant 
precipitate  with  an  infusion  of  nutgalls.  The  remain- 
ing mass  was  spongy,  and  crumbled  under  the  finger 
without  adhering.  We  tried,  without  success^  to  melt 
this  residuum,  which  resembled  softened  horn.  Never- 
theless, by  the  addition  of  water,  and  the  assistance  of 
vigorous  boiling,  we  were  able  to  dissolve  it ;  but  this 
size,  which,  before  being  congealed,  was  perfectly  clear, 
contained  a  considerable  amount  of  coagulated  gelatine, 
rendering  it  very  turbid. 

"  We  dried,  by  slow  evaporation,  some  clarified  size, 
mixed  with  alum ;  we  then  melted  it,  after  taking  the 
precaution  to  soften  it  in  boiling  water,  when  a  part 
still  remained  undissolved,  even  after  thorough  boiling. 

"  Finally,  when  the  persulphate  of  iron  (Fe203,3S03) 
is  mixed  with  gelatine,  the  gelatine  coagulates  at  once 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  not  redissolve  on  the  addi- 
tion of  water.  The  same  efi'ect  does  not  follow  the  use 
of  the  green  sulphate  (green  vitriol  Fe,0S03).  The  oxy- 
gen of  the  persulphate  is  probably  the  cause  of  the 
coagulation.^ 

"  The  impermeability,  which  size  mixed  with  alum 
imparts  to  paper,  may,  in  part,  be '  attributed  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  this  explains  why  paper 
is  not  so  well  sized  when  dried  rapidly,  and  how  this 
accident  is  remedied  by  dampening  the  leaves,  that  is  to 

*  When  browo  paper,  so  colored  by  the  oxide  of  iron  (hydrated 
sesquioxide,  Fea03,3HO),  is  sized,  a  quarter  of  the  amount  of  gelatine 
used  for  white  paper  will  be  sufficient  if,  instead  of  alum,  sulphate  of 
iron  is  added. 
11 


162  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


say,  by  restoring  its  moisture  to  the  paper,  and  again 
exposing  it  to  the  air/ 

"As  we  have  said,  it  is  indispensable  to  macerate  the 
rags  in  small  mills,  where  only  mallets  can  be  used  to 
triturate  them.  This  process  is  moreover  necessary  in 
the  case  of  paper  intended  for  copper-plate  engraving ; 
but  can  it  not  be  so  conducted  that  we  may  reap  the 
benefits  without  incurring  the  disadvantages '? 

"  Let  us  first  examine  what  occurs  in  the  putrid  fer- 
mentation to  which  the  rags  are  subjected. 

''The  first  change  observed  in  the  rags,  after  they 
have  been  for  some  time  in  the  fermenting  vat,  is  the 
disengagement  of  a  material  resembling  mucus,  so  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water  that  it  is  not  removed  in  tritu- 
rating the  rags,  and  is  even  found  in  the  vat  at  the  time 
of  manufacturing  the  paper.  Pulp,  produced  by  rags  thus 
prepared,  retains  water,  so  that  the  paper  made  of  this 
material  shrinks  very  much  in  drying,  and  in  consequence 
has  neither  the  weight  nor  the  size  which  it  should  have. 

"  This  mucosity  is  more  abundant  in  proportion  as  the  ' 
rags  are  coarser,  as  they  have  been  less  thoroughly 
washed  before  rotting,  and  as  the  air  of  the  fermenting 
vessel  is  more  stagnant.  This  substance  decomposes,  as 
the  putrefaction  advances,  and  gives  rise  to  a  kind  of 
white  mildew,  similar  to  that  which  is  seen  on  manure; 
and  by  that  time  a  considerable  portion  of  the  rag  fibres 
have  been  reduced  to  mould. 

"  In  regard  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  this  mucous 
substance  in  the  pulp  will  retain,  the  paper  resembles  that 
made  from  tow,  containing  a  great  deal  of  gluten.  It 

*  The  operation  of  dampening  consists  in  placing  between  wet  felts 
two,  three,  or  four  spurs  of  paper  gathered  from  the  tribbles,  and 
found  to  have  dried  too  quickly.  They  are  afterwards  subjected  to 
slight  pressure,  and  then  hung  to  dry  over  again. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


163 


would  seem,  therefore,  that  such  paper  ought  to  be 
akeady  partially  sized,  but  this  is  not  so ;  a  weak  size 
will  not  be  sufficient  to  render  it  impermeable,  and  if  a 
stronger  solution  is  used,  it  will  have  great  difficulty  in 
penetrating  the  interior  of  the  .leaves. 

"  Fermentation  facilitates  trituration  by  destroying 
the  glutinous  materials  which  unite  the  rag-fibres;  but 
the  filaments  of  straw,  broom,  and  bamboo  are  much 
more  firmly  glued  together,  and  their  union  forms  a 
much  less  yielding  tissue,  and  yet,  when  they  have  been 
for.  some  time  exposed  to  the  action  of  lime,  they  divide 
themselves  into  very  fine  shreds,  and  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  reducing  them  to  as  delicate  a  pulp  as  that 
made  from  rags. 

"  It  seems  to  us,  therefore,  beyond  a  doubt  that  lime 
in  suitable  proportions  would  produce  the  same  effect 
on  the  rags  without  entirely  destroying  their  gluten; 
because  in  the  treatment  to  which  straw  is  subjected,  in 
order  to  convert  it  into  paper,  neither  the  lime  which 
softens,  nor  the  acids  which  bleach  it,  carry  away  the 
whole  amount  of  its  gluten.  On  the  contrary,  so  much 
of  it  remains  that  it  takes  but  a  weak  size  to  make  the 
paper  perfectly  impermeable. 

"Lime,  it  is  well  known,  has  been  employed  at  all 
times  in  our  paper-mills,  and  in  some  of  them  is  so  at 
the  present  day,  not,  however,  to  macerate  the  rags,  but 
on  the  contrary  to  arrest  the  effects  of  maceration.  When 
some  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  long  delay  the  rags 
are  taken  out  of  the  fermenting  vessel,  where  they  would 
not  remain  long,  without  turning  into  mould,  and  dipped 
into  a  milk  of  lime.  The  material,  when  thus  prepared, 
can  be  kept  indefinitely.  The  same  means  are  also  em- 
ployed* to  preserve  the  pulp,  while  in  the  condition  of 
half-stuff. 


164  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  Size  and  its  Preparation. 

"Numerous  experiments  have  shown,  that,  with  the 
best  size,  paper  cannot  always  be  rendered  impermeable, 
even  when  the  operation  is  perfectly  well  conducted.  It, 
is  none  the  less  necessary  to  pay  the  greatest  attention  to 
the  choice  of  materials,  from  which  the  size  is  manufac- 
tured, as  well  as  to  the  method  of  preparation,  which 
fortunately  has  made  great  progress,  since  an  easy  pro- 
cess has  been  discovered  for  obtaining  very  pure  gelatine 
from  bones,  by  means  of  acids.  This  art  has  now  ar- 
rived at  such  a  §tate  of  perfection,  that  every  paper- 
maker,  who  is  willing  to  take  the  proper  amount  of  care, 
can  always  obtain  size  uniting  the  two  most  desirable 
qualities,  namely,  whiteness  and  tenacity.-^ 

"Generally  speaking,  the  skins  of  young  animals  pro- 
duce the  whitest  size  and  dissolve  most  readily.  Never- 
theless we  have  obtained  very  white  size  from  pieces  of 
ox  hide,  and  all  were  found  completely  melted  by  the 
time  the  water  reached  the  boiling  point.  To  be  sure, 
these  hides  had  remained  a  long  time  in  lime,  but  we 
may  conclude  from  the  experiment  that  the  preparation 
of  the  raw  materials,  before  boiling  them,  has  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  whiteness  of  the  size. 

"Saddle-maker's  size  is  esteemed  more  than  any  other 
for  the  preparation  of  paper,  but  it  has  the  objection  of 
being  the  most  highly  colored.  This  no  doubt  proceeds 
from  the  bits  of  tanned  leather,  always  found  mixed  with 
the  Hungary  leather,  of  which  the  parings  of  harnesses, 
&c.,  used  in  making  this  size  consists. 

"  Without  this  mixture,  it  would  be  impossible  to  see 
any  reason  why  this  article  should  be  any  darker  than 
that  obtained  from  tanners  or  leather  dressers.  * 

*  This  process  is  described  in  the  second  section  of  this  chapter. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


165 


"It  is,  therefore,  to  be  presumed  that  \j^e  should  ob- 
tain a  less  highly  colored  solution,  if  attention  were 
paid  to  removing  all  the  scraps  of  tanned  leather,  and  if 
the  scrolls  were  saturated,  for  some  days,  with  milk  of 
lime. 

"It  is  by  leaving  the  parings  of  hide  in  contact  with 
lime  for  a  few  days,  that  they  are  preserved  from  putre- 
faction, to  which  they  are  exposed  before  their  complete' 
desiccation.  By  means  of  this  preparation,  they  can  be 
dried  before  any  decomposition  takes  place,  and  after- 
wards kept  indefinitely;  but  if,  when  they  are  withdrawn 
from  th^  lime,  they  are  allowed  to  remain  heaped  together 
too  long,  or  if  they  are  spread  in  too  thick  layers  in  the 
drying-room,  they  may  still  ferment  and  putrefy. 

"  Scrolls,  which  have  putrefied  before  drying,  are  called 
heated,  and  may  be  recognized  by  the  gray  color  they 
present  under  the  light  coating  of  lime,  which  covers 
their  surface. 

"  When  they  are  boiled,  they  exhale  an  ammoniacal 
odor,  which  partially  disappears  on  the  addition  of  alum. 
Often,  however,  when  no  disagreeable  odor  is  manifest 
while  boiling,  ammonia  is  none  the  less  present  in  a  state 
of  combination.  This  substance  is  liberated  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  lime,  which  also  serves  to  disengage  the 
putrid  ferment  contained  in  the  size. 

"  There  are  several  methods  of  preparing  size  in  our 
paper-mills.  In  some  of  them  it  is  considered  sufficient 
to  put  the  raw  materials  into  a  caldron,  containing  a 
suitable  proportion  of  boiling  water,  and  to  cook  them 
thus  until  all  the  gelatine  is  extracted.  The  boiling  is 
kept  up  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours,  for  three  hundred 
pounds  of  ox-hide  parings. 

"  It  is  evident  that  the  strength  of  the  size  is  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  raw  material  employed. 


166  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


"  In  other  mills  a  smaller  amount  of  water  is,  at  first, 
^added,  and  when  the  decoction  is  concentrated  enough^ 
the  liquid  is  drawn  oflf  and  replaced  by  another  smaller 
amount  of  water.  In  this  manner,  three  or  four  solu- 
tions are  obtained,  which  are  either  mixed  together  or 
preserved  separately. 

"This  method  is  undoubtedly  preferable ;  because,  the 
bits  of  hide  being  unequally  soluble,  the  first  portion  of 
gelatine  extracted  deteriorates  by  remaining  in  the  cal- 
dron until  the  rest  has  been  melted.  Besides  this,  the 
quality  of  the  materials  may  be  better  ascertained  from 
the  amount  of  size  they  have  furnished. 

"Whatever  method  may  be  adopted,  it  is  important 
•    that  the  scrolls  should  not  touch  the  bottom  of  the  cal- 
dron, as,  in  that  case,  they  would  be  burnt,  and  give  the 
size  a  darker  color. 

"  Some  manufacturers  cover  the  bottoms,  of  their 
caldrons  with  be.ds  of  straw,  and  in  this  manner  no  doubt 
prevent  the  scrolls  from  adhering ;  but  in  their  desire  to 
avoid  this  evil  they  fall  into  another. 

"  Straw  contains  a  deep  yellow  coloring  matter,  the 
extraction  of  which  is  facilitated  by  the  lime  of  the  raw 
materials  that  has  not  yet  lost  its  alkalinity  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  so  that  when  the  straw  is  withdrawn,  on 
emptying  the  caldron,  it  is  found  brown  like  that  of 
manure. 

"  In  the  Dutch  paper-mills  the  raw  materials  are  held 
in  a  wicker  basket,  which  is  let  down  into  the  caldron 
and  withdrawn  by  means  of  a  pulley,  when  the  size  is  to 
be  removed.  This  apparatus  is  very  simple,  and  allows 
us  to  ascertain  whether  there  still  remains  any  gelatine 
undissolved. 

"  With  whatever  care  size  is  extracted,  the  decoction 
will  never  be  clear ;  it  holds  in  suspension  a  great  quan- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


167 


tity  of  undissolved  gelatinous  matter,  which  would  not 
be  precipitated,  even  after  long  rest,  with  the  fluidity  of 
the  size  constantly  maintained ;  but  if  by  any  means  an 
abundant  precipitate  can  be  determined,  the  particles 
of  suspended  matter  will  be  carried  with  it  and  the  size 
will  then  become  perfectly  clear. 

"This  clarification  may  be  accomplished  in  several 
ways. 

"  1st.  When  the  size  has  been  strained  through  the 
basket  a  small  amount  of  quicklime  is  added — about  half 
a  pound  to  forty  buckets  of  size.  The  lime  is  first  wet 
with  water  and  then  stirred  in  so  as  to  mix  it  thoroughly 
with  the  liquid.  '  The  lime  soon  precipitates,  and  carries 
with  it  part  of  the  matters  which  clouded  the  transparency 
of  the  decoction.  The  size  is  then  drawn  off  and  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  alum  gradually  added  and  stirred 
in  gently  till  the  mixture  is  complete ;  the  alum  is  de- 
composed by  the  lime  and  occasions  considerable  thicken- 
ening,  as  it  were  a  coagulation,  of  the  size  ;  the  stirring 
is  continued  and  the  whole  mass  soon  resembles  curdled 
sauce ;  the  precipitate  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
and  the  liquid  becomes  transparent.  It  now  only  re- 
mains to  draw  off  the  solution  through  a  siphon  and  add 
the  proper  proportion  of  alum. 

"  If  this  operation  has  been  well  conducted,  there  should 
no  longer  remain  any  lime  in  the  size  ;  this  is  ascertained 
by  test  paper ;  if  any  should  be  present,  it  must  be  pre- 
cipitated by  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid. 

"  If  too  much  alum  has  been  used  in  clarifying  the 
size  so  as  to  exceed  the  point  of  saturation,  the  solution 
would  remain  turbid;  in  this  case  in  order  to  remove  it, 
it  may  be  precipitated  with  lime.  This  is  very  easily 
done,  but  the  precipitate  will  involve  a  loss  of  gelatine 
and  the  size  be  proportionately  weakened. 


168  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


"  The  gelatinous  precipitate  formed  in  clarifying  should 
not  be  thrown  away ;  it  could  not  indeed  be  re-dissolved, 
but  if  mixed  with  the  coarser  kinds  of  pulp  at  the  time 
when  their  trituration  is  completed,  the  paper  made  from 
this  pulp  will  by  this  addition  be  somewhat  sized. 

"  2d.  Size  may  also  be  clarified  by  mucilage  of  marsh- 
mallow  roots.  These  roots  are  reduced  to  paste  after 
being  well  washed,  and  that  substance  mixed  with  the 
size ;  the  alum  being  added  immediately  after,  the  muci- 
lage coagulates  and  carries  down  with  it  all  the  matters 
which  obscured  the  transparency  of  the  size.  There  is 
no  danger  of  using  too  much  alum. 

"  The  following  method  will  undoubtedly  be  preferred ' 
because  it  requires  no  mixtures  nor  any  particular  atten- 
tion^  and  is  self-operating  by  means  of  a  very  simple  fil- 
tering apparatus. 

"  We  know  that  when  size  is  filtered  through  paper, 
it  passes  perfectly  clear,  but  the  paper  soon  becomes 
choked  up  and  the  filtration  is  arrested,  even  if  we  suc- 
ceed in  keeping  the  size  fluid.  The  inevitable  efi'ect  of 
the  obstruction  of  the  filters  may  be  remedied  by  the  fol- 
lowing apparatus.  It  is  composed  of  a  square  box  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  high.  The  size  enters  at  the 
bottom,  passes  through  several  felts  and  issues  through 
a  stopcock  placed  at  the  upper  part  of  the  box. 

"  The  felts  are  sustained  by  frames  fitted  to  the  inside 
of  the  .  box,  so  that  nothing  can  pass  over  their  edges,  and 
the  box  itself  is  lined  with  felt. 

"  It  is  true  that  this  filter  will  soon  be  choked  up, 
but  it  only  takes  a  moment  to  open  the  box,  remove  the 
felts,  and  put  others  in  their  place.  In  a  similar  appa- 
ratus, which  we  had  made  and  which  has  been  in  use 
for  several  years,  the  felts  are  only  removed  once  in  five 
or  six  days.   There  are  only  four  felts,  and  yet  the  size  is 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


169 


found  to  be'  sufficiently  clear ;  in  which  opinion,  how- 
ever, we  do  not  concur,  and  believe  that  it  would  be 
better  to  use  ten  or  twelve.  If  this  were  done,  the  ob- 
struction of  the  apparatus  would  not  take  place  any 
sooner,  and  the  size  would  be  made  as  clear  as  though 
filtered  through  paper. 

"  If  the  caldron  were  placed  on  the  story  above  the  filtei^ 
the  passage  of  the  liquid  through  it  would  be  hastened 
by  the  weight  of  the  column  of  size. 

"  Alum  is  added  at  the  time  of  drawing  off  the  solu- 
tion, but  it  is  never  exactly  understood  in  what  propor- 
tion. The  weight  of  the  dry  materials  of  the  size  is 
taken  as  the  basis,  but  experience  shows  that  there  "is 
considerable  variation  in  the  product  of  these  substances. 

"  We  believe  that  by  means  of  a  hydrometer  made  for 
the  purpose,  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  size  might 
be  ascertained,  and  the  proportion  of  alum  to  be  used 
thus  more  surely  regulated. 

"  In  several  mills  soap  is  mixed  with  the  size.  This 
mixture  must  be  accomplished  before  the  addition  of  the 
alum,  as  the  soap  would  be  at  once,  decomposed  if  turned 
into  the  aluminated  solution.  We  have  several  times 
had  occasion  to  witness  the  good  effects  of  this  combi- 
nation, and  we  have  found  that  it  rendered  the  sizing 
less  dependent  on  the  duration  of  the  drying,  and  con- 
tributed to  make  the  paper  more  impermeable. 

"  The  liquid,  which  Ackerman  used  to  render  stuffs 
impermeable,  is  a  mixture  of  soap,  size,  and  alum.  We 
shall  give  the  receipt  for  this  preparation  at  the  end  of 
these  instructions. 

"  The  size  used  for  paper,  made  of  unfermented  pulp, 
is  always  weaker  than  that  intended  for  fermented  pulp. 
Still  further,  if  the  pulp  is  very  fresh,  paper  may  be  per- 
fectly sized  with  so  weak  a  solution,  that  after  the  ope- 


170  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

• 

ration  it  will  appear  to  have  produced  no  effect.  The 
paper  will  become  impermeable  if  before  hanging  to  dry 
it  is  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days  in  contact  with 
the  moist  size ;  but  in  order  that  this  sweating  should 
produce  the  desired  effect,  it  is  necessary  that  neither 
the  size  nor  the  pulp  of  the  paper  should  contain  any 
germ  of  putrid  ferment. 

"  M.  Montgolfier  has  confirmed  by  experiments  made 
with  the  greatest  care,  what  we  had  anticipated  of  the 
effect  of  size  kept  moist  in  the  paper  for  a  long  time  before 
drying.  He  kept  for  twenty  days,  without  drying,  some 
paper  made  from  unfermented  pulp,  dipped  in  much 
weaker  size  than  he  was  in  the  habit  of  using,  and  the 
paper,  which  did  not  at  first  appear  sized,  became  pro- 
gressively more  impermeable. 

"  The  package  of  paper,  well  wrapped  in  felts,  was 
opened  each  day,  and  a  leaf  taken  out  and  dried. 

"That  which  was  taken  out  immediately  after  the 
operation,  while  the  size  was  still  warm,  did  not  appear 
sized ;  that  of  the  next  day  but  slightly  so.  Each 
day  the  paper  was  sensibly  improved  until  the  twelfth, 
at  which  time  the  leaf  was  spread  upon  a  tub  of  water, 
and  found  to  have  become  perfectly  impermeable. 

"  The  trial  was  continued  till  the  twentieth  day  with 
the  same  success,  when  all  the  paper  was  dried  for  fear 
of  spoiling. 

"  During  this  time  the  paper  had  been  exchanged, 
and  pressed  three,  or  four  times,  the  thermometer  indi- 
cating 12  to  15°  C.  (53.6  to  59  Fahr.). 

"  We  desired  that  this  experiment  should  be  tried 
comparatively  with  paper  made  of  fermented  and  unfer- 
mented pulp.  This  latter  kind  gave  exactly  the  inverse 
result,  and,  when  dried  at  once,  appeared  sized,  but  was 
not  impermeable.    The  next  day  it  was  found  less  sized, 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


171 


and  on  the  fifth  seemed  to  have  lost  every  particle  of 
sizing. 

"  We  were  not  surprised  at  this  effect.  We  had  an- 
ticipated that  fermented  pulp,  however  well- washed, 
would  still  retain  a  little  putrid  ferment,  which  would 
affect  the  composition  of  the  size;  but  what  we  were 
far  from  expecting  was,  that  the  character  of  the  water 
should  entirely  change  the  result. 

"  The  experiment  we  have  just  cited  was  performed 
at  Annonay,  and  M.  Montgolfier  wished  to  repeat  it  at  his 
paper-mill  at  Voiron.  The  pulp,  from  which  the  paper 
had  been  made,  was  very  fresh ;  the  size  remarkably 
pure  and  clarified  with  much  care,  and  yet,  at  .  the  end 
of  a  few  days,  the  paper  exhaled  an  offensive  odor,  and 
was  not  at  all  sized.  M.  Montgolfier  repeated  the  experi- 
ment, and  remained  convinced  that  this  unexpected  result 
was  due  to  the  qualities  of  the  water. 

"  We  are,  like  him,  persuaded  that  the  putrid  fermen- 
tation which  is  developed  should  be  attributed  to  the 
decomposition  of  the  sulphate  of  lime  contained  in  the 
water,  but  at  the  same  time  we  believe  that  whatever 
may  be  the  defect  it  may  be  remedied. 

"  Eleven  specimens  of  well  water,  containing  selenite 
(sulphate  of  lime),  examined  by  M.  D'Arcet,  required 
on  an  average  1.298  grammes  (20.051  grs.  troy)  of  pure 
dry  subcarbonate  of  soda  (carbonate  of  soda,  NaO,C02  + 
lOHO)  to  saturate  one  litre  (1.76  pt.)  to  the  point  of 
perfectly  dissolving  soap.  The  worst  specimen  tibsorbed 
1.83  grammes  (28.25  grs.)  of  pure,  dry  subcarbonate  of 
soda.        •  ' 

"River  water  may  be  clarified  by  employing  25 
grammes  (386  grs.)  of  alum  to  the  hectolitre  (22.01 
gals.). 

"  Paper  of  fermented  pulp  cannot  be  well  sized  at  one 


172 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


operation ;  it  should  be  twice  dipped,  if  it  is  desired  to 
become  perfectly  impermeable.  This  double  process 
would  increase  the  expense  of  manufacture  and  impair 
the  whiteness  of  the  paper,  so  that  we  believe  that  it 
would  be  most  economical  to  restore  the  gluten  lost  by 
fermentation.  This  means  is  adopted  by  the  Chinese, 
who  add  to  their  paper  pulp  a  sizing  extracted  from  rice 
while  cold,^  and  the  infusion  of  a  plant  called  Oreni,  one 
of  the  Malvacese.  The  effect  of  this  mucilage  is  to 
hold  in  suspension  the  starch  extracted  from  the  rice, 
and  to  keep  the  leaves  from  adhering  to  each  other ;  for 
the  Chinese  couch  their  leaves  one  upon -the  other,  with- 
out interposing  felts,  only  placing  thin  bits  of  bamboo 
between  them  to  enable  them  to  be  separated  more 
readily.  In  this  operation  the  paper  is  not  sized.  That 
which  is  destined  for  writing  or  colors,  receives  a  further 
sizing,  which  is  rather  a  saturation  with  alum ;  for  the 
liquid  in  which  the  paper  is  dipped  contains  only  one 
part  of  size  to  two  of  alum.^ 

"  It  is  well  known  that  alum  forms  insoluble  precipi- 
tates with  mucilaginous  substances ;  at  the  same  time 
the  rice  starch  is  converted  by  heat  into  a  dressing.^ 

1  <'The  rice  is  first  wet  and  put  into  an  unglazed  earthenware  pot. 
It  is  stirred  and  then  placed  in  a  cloth,  while  cold  water  is  poured 
over  it,  carrying  off  the  gummy  matter.  What  remains  on  the  filter 
is  then  treated  in  the  same  way  and  so  on  until  no  gelatine  remains." 
(Kempfer,  "  Amoenitates  Exoticae").  It  is  evident  that  in  this  ope- 
ration not$only  the  gummy  part  of  the  rice  is  carried  off,  but  that 
•the  starch  is  detached  by  rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  unglazed 

vessel. 

2  This  is  the  process  employed  by  the  colorers  which  we  shall  give 
in  full  before  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

^  The  paper  is  sized  leaf  by  leaf.  Each  sheet  is  attached  to  a 
piece  of  bamboo  and  dipped  into  the  sizing  fluid,  which  should  be  vei;y 
warm. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING.  173 

These  two  results  combined  render  the  Chinese  paper 
impermeable,  by  the  aid  of  a  sizing  which  would  produce 
no  effect  upon  ours. 

"  We  endeavored  to  obtain  the  same  result  by  adding 
starch  to  the  fermented  pulp,  and  the  success  was  equal 
to  our  anticipations.  We  prepared  a  light  size  of  potato 
starch,  to  which  we  added  alum ;  this  size  being  well 
mixed  with  the  stuffs  in  the  rag- engine,  we  poured  in  a 
solution  of  resinous  soap,  which  produced  a  precipitate 
of  resin,  starch,  and  alumina.  A  very  slight  sizing 
rendered  the  paper  made  from  this  pulp  perfectly  imper- 
meable. 

"  We  had  employed  to  the  hundred  pounds  of  dry 
pulp,  two  kilogrammes  (4.41  lbs.  avoird.)  of  starch,  one 
kilogramme  (2.20  lbs.)  of  saponified  resin,  with  half  a 
kilogramme  (1.10  lbs.),  each,  of  subcarbonate  of  soda 
and  alum. 

"  During  the  operation  of  sizing,  it  is  customary  to 
try  the  strength  of  the  size  from'  time  to  time,  by  drying 
rapidly  one  of  the  sized  leaves.  For  this  purpose  one 
of  them  is  drawn  out  from  a  post  of  paper,  but  at  what- 
ever place  a  post  is  opened,  the  separation  always  takes 
place  between  two  spurs  and  the  leaf  which  is  taken  out 
is  always  the  top  of  a  spur.  Observing  this,  we  thought 
proper  to  have  a  leaf  taken  from  the  middle  together 
with  the  top  ones.  After  drying,  we  found  that  the 
centre  leaves  were  less  sized  than  the  top  ones,  and  this 
explained  why  on  examining  leaves  made  of  the  same 
pulp  and  sized  at  the  same  time,  some  of  them  are-  found 
more  impervious  than  others. 

"  It  is  important,  therefore,  not  to  make  the  spurs  too 
thick.  Two  leaves  are  enough  for  the  stronger  and  five 
for  the  thinner.  It  need  not  be  feared  that  the  paper 
will  shrivel  on  drying ;  this  cannot  occur  if  the  exchange 


174 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


has  been  carefully  attended  to  and  the  drying  well  con- 
ducted. 

"  The  process  of  exchange  which  we  derive  from  the 
Dutch,  is  not  only  intended  to  soften  the  grain  of  the 
paper  and  render  its  surface  velvety,  but  is  an  absolutely 
indispensable  operation,  when  unfermented  pulps  are 
employed.  "Whatever  thickness  is  given  to  the  spurs 
of  paper,  if  they  were  hung  after  they  had  been  pressed 
without  felts,  they  would  shrivel  on  drying  and  would 
be  covered  with  wrinkles,  which  it  would  be  impossible 
to  remove.  Paper  made  from  tow  furnishes  us  with  a 
palpable  proof  of  what  we  affirm.  It  contains  gluten  in 
so  great  a  proportion,  that  it  is  necessary  to  dry  it 
between  two  leaves  of  paper  made  of  fermented  pulp. 
Without  this  precaution,  the  leaves  dried  in  the  usual 
spurs  would  be  as  wrinkled  as  crape. 

"  In  some  of  our  mills  an  apparatus  is  used,  invented 
in  England,  by  means  of  which  several  reams  of  paper 
may  be  sized  at  once.  It  is  composed  of  a  chest,  in 
which  the  leaves  are  placed  vertically ;  the  chest  is  then 
closed  and  the  water  withdrawn  by  means  of  a  pump. 
The  size  introduced  at  the  bottom  rises  slowly,  and  when 
the  leaves  are  considered  sufficiently  penetrated  with  the 
material,  a  horizontal  press  is  worked,  which  compresses 
the  leaves  and  expels  the  superfluous  size  from  the  chest. 

"  Such  an  apparatus  is  useful,  but  too  costly  to  be 
used  in  small  mills,  as  paper  may  be  perfectly  well  sized 
without  it. 

"  It  has  been  seen  from  what  precedes,  that  the  only 
difficulty  is  in  sizing  paper  made  from  fermented  pulp ; 
but  it  has  been  also  seen  that  maceration  may  be  so 
managed  as  to  facilitate  trituration,  without  destroying 
so  much  of  the  glutinous  material.  In  the  second  place, 
that  where  this  substance  has  been  destroyed,  it  may  be 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


175 


replaced  by  a  substitute,  which  renders  the  sizing  Itss 
difficult. 

"We  think  it  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  the 
fresher  the  pulp  the  warmer  the  size  should  be,  and  that 
the  reverse  holds  good  for  paper  of  fermented  pulp.  In 
either  case  there  is  an  advantage  in  heating  the  paper 
in  a  drying-stove  before  sizing." 

Ackerman\s  Fluid  for  rendering  Papers  and  Stuffs 
Impermeable, 

The  learned  Vauquelin,  who  by  his  sudden  death  left 
an  immense  void  in  the  useful  arts  based  upon  chemistry, 
made  an  analysis  of  a  liquid,  discovered  by  Ackerman, 
and  employed  by  him  to  render  every  kind  of  stuff,  of 
whatever  nature,  impermeable  to  water. 

Vauquelin  gives  the  following  receipt  for  preparing 
this  liquid: — 

Dissolve  soap  and  gfte,  or  any  other  kind  of  gelatine, 
in  water ;  add  to  this  a  solution  of  alum,  which  will  de- 
compose and  form  in  the  mixture  a  flaky  precipitate  of 
oil,  alumina,  and  animal  matter.  Add  weak  sulphuric 
acid  to  redissolve  a  portion  of  the  alum,  render  the  pre- 
cipitate light,  and  prevent  it  from  falling.  But  alum, 
when  united  with  oil  and  animal  matter,  does  not  en- 
tirely redissolve  in  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  oil,  therefore, 
remains  very  opaque  and  neither  rises  nor  sinks  to  the 
bottom.  Of  course  too  great  a  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  must  not  be  added.  This  operation  has  been  modi- 
fied by  M.  D'Arcet. 

§  7.  Theories  of  Sizing. 

Two  different  opinions  having  been  held  in  regard'  to 
the  theory  of  sizing,  and  this  subject  being  one  of  the 


176 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


h%hest  importance,  we  think  it  our  duty  to  give  these 
two  theories  separately.  We  believe  that  from  this 
comparison  may  result  an  improvement  in  one  of  the 
most  extensive  branches  of  our  industry. 

MM.  D'Arcet  and  Merimee,  as  commissioners-  ap- 
pointed by  the  "  Societe  d'Encouragement"  to  investi- 
gate the  subject  of  sizing,  made  a  very  enlightened 
report  upon  this  important  matter,  which  we  have  already 
given.    The  following  is  that  of  M.  Payen: — 

"  The  process  of  sizing,  still  most  generally  in  use  in 
our  paper-mills,  consists,  as  is  well  known,  in  dipping 
the  leaves  of  paper  into  a  solution  of  gelatine  and  alum. 

"Since  we  have  been  enabled  to  manufacture  and  dry 
the  paper  at  once,  many  researches  have  been  made  to 
discover  means  of  carrying  the  same  economy  of  labor 
into  the  operation  of  sizing.  It  has,  however,  been 
observed  that  paper,  impregnated  with  an  equal  amount 
of  the  same  gelatinous  solutioif  and  then  dried  upon 
cylinders  internally  heated  by  steam,  was  not  sized,  that 
is  to  say,  when  ink  marks  were  drawn  on  its  surface, 
they  would  quickly  penetrate  the  substance  of  the  paper, 
and,  spreading  in  every  direction,  form  irregular  and 
illegible  characters.  It  was  generally  supposed  that  the 
sizing  was  impaired  by  heat,  and  inquiry  Was  particu- 
larly directed  towards  the  means  of  drying  the  sized 
paper  at  a  lower  temperature.  The  attempts  in  this 
direction  were  not  successful,  and  as  others  are  making, 
which  will  be  also  entirely  useless,  we  believe  it  our  duty 
to  publish  our  observations,  upon  what  actually  consti- 
tutes the  sizing  of  paper  according  to  the  old  process. 

"When  the  leaves  of  sized  paper  are  carried  still  damp 
to  the  drying-room,  they  are  dried  more  or  less  gradu- 
ally, according  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air,  and 
the  comparative  elevation  of  temperature.    The  surface 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


177 


first  undergoes  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  then, 
through  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  paper  fibres, 
absorbs  an  additional  quantity  of  the  gelatinous  solu- 
tion. This  liquid,  when  brought  to  the  surface  and 
evaporated,  deposits  its  gelatine ;  again  a  fresh  supply  of 
the  solution  is  drawn  to  the  surface,  deposits  the  gelatine 
it  contains,  and  the  same  thing  is  repeated  until  the 
paper  is  dry.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  gelatine  is  thus  brought  to  the  surface 
of  the  paper,  and  that,  rendered  more  insoluble  by  the 
action  of  the  alum,  it  opposes  the  infiltration  of  the 
ink  into  the  substance  of  the  paper,  or,  in  plain  terms, 
prevents  it  from  blotting.  Thus,  in  fact,  as  soon  as  this 
superficial  coating  is  removed,  we  find  that  we  can  no 
longer  write  without  the  addition  of  some  new  material. 
Pounce  is  the  substance,  as  we  all  know,  generally  used 
to  prevent  the  ink  from  spreading. 

"  It  may  be  seen  that  the  same  phenomenon  cannot 
take  place,  when  this  process  of  sizing  is  applied  to  pa- 
per made  by  machinery ;  for  indeed  in  this  case,  the 
paper  is  carried  under  cylinders,  heated  to  60  or  70  de- 
grees (140°  to  158°  Fahr.)  and  dried  almost  instantane- 
ously. This  temperature  cannot  decompose  the  gelatine, 
but  this  material  becomes  fixed  throughout  the  substance 
of  the  paper,  by  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  dried,  and 
is  therefore  found  at  every  point  too  small  in  quantity 
to  prevent  the  infiltration  of  the  ink ;  yet,  if  a  sufiicient 
amount  of  gelatine  were  used  to  attain  this  object,  the 
paper  would  be  very  stiff  and  its  sizing  very  costly.  All 
attempts,  therefore,  at  tub-sizing,  or  by  continuous  ma- 
chinery intended  for  that  purpose,  would  be  fruitless. 

"  It  is  probable  that  both  methods  will  be  successful, 
if  a  process  is  followed,  analogous  to  that,  resulting  so 
well  in  the  hands  of  M.  Canson,  and  which  appears  to 
12 


178  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


consist  in  permeating  the  entire  substance  of  the  paper, 
with  a  material  obtained  by  decomposing  a  resinous  wax 
soap  with  alum,  and  adding  starch." 

§  8.  Sizing  in  the  Pulp. 

The  improvements  to  be  introduced  into  the  French 
method  of  sizing,  in  order  at  least  to  equal  that  which 
is  practised  in  Holland,  had  from  1806  excited  the 
solicitude  of  the  "  Societe  d'Encouragement,"  which  as 
early  as  that  year  offered  a  prize  of  three  thousand  francs. 
The  essays  received  in  this  competition  not  having  satis- 
fied the  conditions  required,  although  the  government 
had  doubled  the  prize,  and  the  reunion  of  Holland  to 
France  having  given  hopes  that  we  might  obtain  an  easy 
knowledge  of  the  processes  in  use  among  our  neighbors, 
induced  the  Society,  upon  the  advice  of  its  Committee 
on  Chemical  Arts,  to  withdraw  the  offer  of  this  prize,  and 
charge  a  special  commission  with  the  work  of  making 
the  necessary  researches  for  the  attainment  of  this  object. 

MM.  D'Arcet  and  Merimee  were  the  commissioners 
appointed,  and  were  for  five  years  successfully  engaged 
in  this  important  labor.  They  obtained  precious  results 
not  merely  in  regard  to  sizing  after  the  paper  is  made, 
but  also  with  reference  to  sizing  in  the  pulp,  that  is  to 
say,  at  the  time  of  making  the  paper.  It  was  in  1815 
that  M.  Merimee  made  a  report  in  the  name  of  the  com- 
mission, in  which,  after  having  set  forth  the  advantages 
they  had  obtained,  the  commission  proposed  to  keep  its 
processes  secret,  and  communicate  them  only  to  those 
manufacturers  who  might  wish  to  try  these  processes, 
and  who  should  engage  themselves  to  communicate  the 
result  of  their  experiments  to  the  Society.  This  propo- 
sition was  accepted,  and  it  was  decided  that  these  in- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


179 


structions  should  not  be  published  in  the  transactions, 
until  after  our  own  manufacturers  should  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  reaping  the  advantages  of  the  new  process,  and 
the  inventors  should  judge  that  it  had  been  carried  to 
perfection  by  practice. 

The  hopes  of  the  Society  were  disappointed,  and  the 
interest  it  had  taken  in  the  advancement  of  our  manu- 
factures was  not  appreciated.  Notwithstanding  the 
engagements,  taken  by  all,  only  three  manufacturers  ful- 
filled their  promise.  M.  Eli  Montgolfier  acknowledged 
the  receipt  of  the  communication,  and  announced  that 
he  had  tried  the  experiment  and  found  the  result  satis- 
factory ;  but  that  the  process  seemed  to  him  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  one  he  was  accustomed  to  employ,  and^ 
therefore,  would  be  difficult  to  adopt. 

At  the  Exhibition  of  1819  there  appeared  paper  from 
the  mills  of  MM.  Odent  and  Grevenich,  who  had,  each 
separately  taken  the  same  engagement  as  M.  Eli  Mont- 
golfier, in  receiving  the  instructions.  The  first  was  the 
only  one  who  acknowledged  the  receipt,  or  rendered  an 
account  of  his  experiments.  For  some  time  the  paper, 
furnished  by  him  to  the  Administration  of  Lotteries  was 
sized  in  the  new  way ;  but,  as  he  only  worked  with  fer- 
mented pulp,  his  paper  was  too  soft,  and  the  Administra- 
tion obliged  him  to  size  with  gelatine. 

M.  Canson,  to  whom  the  same  process  was  communi- 
cated, endeavored  to  modify  it,  and  took  out  a  patent  to 
insure  himself  a  monopoly  of  the  method  he  employs  at  ^ 
his  beautiful  paper-mills  at  Vidalon  les  Annonay.  This 
process  is  at  the  present  day  well  known  to  all,  and  we 
will  speak  of  it  further  on. 

We  should  probably  have  been  longer  in  being  able 
to  fix  upon  the  substances  suited  to  sizing  in  the  pulp, 
had  not  chance  thrown  into  the  hands  of  M.  Braconnot, 


180  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


in  September,  1826,  a  leaf  of  paper  made  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vosges  and  sized  in  the  pulp.  This  learned 
chemist  analyzed  this  leaf,  and  from  his  analysis  deduced 
the  following  process  for  forming  a  size  to  be  mixed  in 
the  vat,  in  order  to  size  the  pulp,  as  soon  as  manufac- 
tured. This  analysis  is  described  in  the  33d  volume  of 
the  Annales  de  Ckimie  et  de  Physique^  P^ge  39.^ 

"  To  a  hundred  parts  of  dry  pulp,  properly  diluted  with 
water,  add  a  boiling  and  perfectly  homogeneous  solution 
of  8  parts  of  flour,  first  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  caus- 
tic potassa  to  render  the  solution  more  perfect.  To  this 
now  add  one  part  of  white  soap,  previously  dissolved  in 
hot  water.  At  the  same  time  heat  a  half  a  part  of 
galipot^  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  a  solution  of  potassa, 
rendered  caustic  by  lime  to  dissolve  this  resin  entirely, 
and  after  having  mixed  the  whole,  it  only  remains  'to 
pour  in  a  solution  of  one  part  of  alum." 

The  compound  resulting  from  the  intimate  union  of 
the  above-named  materials  was  applied  by  M.  Bra- 
connot  to  brown  paper,  in  only  thin  coatings,  and  the 
paper  was  perfectly  sized.  "  It  seems,"  adds  this  learned 
man,  "  that  in  introducing  fat  and  resinous  matters  into 
the  pulp,  the  principal  object  is,  as  it  were,  to  fix  and 
agglutinate  the  size,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  being 
expelled  by  pressure." 

This  is  then  the  discovery  of  the  materials  employed 
in  sizing  paper  in  the  pulp,  due  to  the  power  of  science 
put  in  practice  by  so  learned  a  man  as  M.  Braconnot,  to 
whom  it  will  insure  an  undying  reputation. 

Several  manufacturers  tried  this  process  without  suc- 
cess ;  but  doubtless  they  operated  upon  fermented  pulp, 

*  See  page  232  of  this  book—TR. 

^  Galipot  is  a  very  clear,  yellowish-white  pine  resin  of  French  origin. 
—Tr. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


181 


and  the  failure  is  only  to  be  attributed  to  the  persons 
themselves  who  made  the  attempt. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  receipt  of  M.  Canson.  It 
answers  very  well  in  his  mills,  but  was  without  success 
in  those  of  a  manufacturer  I  was  visiting  in  the  month 
of  September,  1828,  and  with  whom  I  should  have  made 
it  succeed  if  I  had  been  able  to  stay  longer  with  him, 
or  if  the  mill  had  been  working  during  my  sojourn  in  the 
city  where  it  was  situated. 

It  is  important  to  understand  in  brief  the  work  of  the 
commission  of  the  "  Societe  d'Encouragement,"  a  report 
of  which  is  contained  in  their  transactions. 

The  "  Societe  d'Encouragement"  had  received  about 
twenty-four  years  ago  specimens  of  paper  made  in  Ger- 
many, and  sized,  the  one  with  resinous  soap,  the  other 
with  starch.  They  were  but  feebly  sized,  which  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  German  mills,  as  in  ours,  the  rags  are 
fermented.  This  long  maceration,  carried  as  far  as  putrid 
fermentation,  deprives  the  rags  of  their  gluten,  and  the 
pulp  then  requires  a  great  quantity  of  starch;  but  in 
that  case  the  leaves,  on  being  withdrawn  from  the  press, 
cannot  be  separated  without  peeling.  The  commissioners 
knew  of  these  processes,  and  it  occurred  to  them  to  unite 
the  two.  They  believed  that  the  addition  of  resinous 
soap  would  permit  them  to  employ  a  larger  proportion 
of  starch,  without  thereby  increasing  the  adhesiveness  of 
the  leaves.  Taking  the  practice  of  the  Chinese  as  a 
starting  point,  they  were  in  the  hopes  of  success.  Ex- 
perience confirmed  their  conjectures ;  but,  as  they  were 
operating  with  fermented  pulp,  the  paper,  although  im- 
permeable, had  not  enough  stiffness  to  make  the  sizing 
appear  satisfactory.  The  commissioners  thought  that 
the  process  would  not  succeed  completely  with  any  but 


182 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


nnfermented  pulp.    The  following  was  their  method  of 
operating : — 

When  the  trituration  was  complete,  and  the  pulp  had 
arrived  at  that  point,  when  it  only  remained  to  add  the  . 
blueing,  they  poured  into  the  rag-engine  two  buckets  of 
a  size  made  of  starch  and  alum.  When  the  mixture 
was  complete,  they  gradually  added  a  solution  of  resinous 
soap,  made  with  subcarbonate  of  soda  instead  of  the 
caustic  potassa,  used  by  Braconnot.  This  soap  was 
added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  dissolve  the  alum.  The 
action  of  the  cylinder  produced  a  great  deal  of  foam, 
which  disappeared  on  the  addition  of  a  tumblerful 
of  oil. 

With  a  view  to  giving  greater  stiffiiess  to  the  paper, 
they  added  clarified  animal  size.  The  paper  peeled 
somewhat,  after  being  pressed  without  the  felts ;  but  this 
evil  was  remedied  by  pouring  into  the  rag-engine  a  small 
amount  of  a  solution  of  white  soap,  and  the  leaves  could 
then  be  stripped  off  without  peeling  at  all.  Animal  size 
did  not  seem  to  them  to  be  necessary,  nor  is  it  employed 
by  M.  Canson,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter. 

It  appears  to  us  important  to  describe  the  manner  in 
which  the  commissioners  prepared  their  resinous  soap. 
To  a  solution  of  subcarbonate  of  soda  they  added  resin, 
until  it  refused  to  combine  any  farther.  They  at  once 
dissolved  this  soap  in  hot  water  and  poured  it  into  a  bar- 
rel; the  uncombined  resin  precipitated,  and  the  solution 
gelatinized  on  cooling.  By  this  precaution  they  made 
themselves  sure  of  using  an  exact  mixture  of  alumina, 
resin,  and  starch,  which  they  then  precipitated  around 
the  molecules  of  the  pulp,  as  equably  as  possible. 

The  commissioners  think  that  it  would  be  better  to 
treat  the  pulp  first  with  alum,  and  then  to  mix  a  little 
caustic  soda  with  the  water  in  which  the  starch  is  dis- 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


183 


solved,  on  account  of  the  property,  recognized  as  belong- 
ing to  caustic  alkalies,  of  converting  the  starchy  particles 
at  once  into  size.  The  succeeding  boiling  renders  the  size 
still  more  fluid.  The  soap  is  now  added  and,  when  the 
materials  are  very  intimately  united,  they  are  gradually 
poured  upon  the  previously  aluminated  pulp  until  com- 
plete saturation  is  obtained,  which  is  indicated  by  test 
paper.  Lastly,  a  solution  of  white  soap  is  poured  into 
the  vat,  and  if  this  should  occasion  bubbles  during  the 
motions  of  the  vatman  in  forming  the  paper,  they  may  be 
made  to  disappear  by  the  addition  of  a  little  oil,  or  still 
better,  of  an  oleaginous  emulsion.  Nut  or  poppy  oil 
should  be  preferred  on  account  of  their  drying  qualities. 

Although  they  succeeded  in  making  size  with  wheat 
flour,  yet  the  commissioners  advise  the  use  of  rice  flour, 
in  imitation  of  the  Chinese.  The  proportions  should 
vary  and  be  regulated  by  the  quality  of  the  pulp  which 
may  contain  more  or  less  gluten.  Experiments  on  a 
small  scale,  which  any  intelligent  manufacturer  may 
make  without  difiiculty,  will  establish  the  proportions  to 
be  employed. 

In  employing  this  process,  we  are  not  able  to  azure 
the  paper  with  Prussian  blue,  as  that  substance  is  de- 
composed by  the  alkali  of  the  soap.  Cobalt  blue  should 
be  used  and  dissolved  with  the  starch  when  the  size  is 
prepared,  as  in  this  manner,  being  closely  blended  with 
the  dressing,  it  is  lighter,  and  does  not  fall  to  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaf,  as  occurs  in  the  case  of  English  paper. 

Moreover,  cobalt  blue,  which  is  employed  in  Holland 
and  in  England,  is  a  more  brilliant  and  a  faster  color  than 
Prussian  blue. 

M.  D'Arcet,  being  at  Cusset  in  the  paper-mill  of  M. 
Bujon  at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  M.  Braconnot's 
discovery,  successfully  repeated  the  experiment  at  that 


184  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


place ;  but  not  finding  the  paper  sufficiently  sized,  con- 
cluded, after  a  comparative  examination  of  the  shade 
produced  with  iodine,  that  the  proportion  of  starcji  re- 
quired to  be  increased  and  advised  the  adoption  of  the 
following : — 

100.00  parts  of  dried  pulp, 
12.00        "  starch, 
1.00        "    resin,  dissolved  in 
0.50        "    subcarUonate  of  soda, 
315.00        "  water. 

The  water  was  first  boiled,  and  the  soap,  the  resin, 
and  the  soda  added.  The  boiling  was  continued  until 
the  combination  of  these  materials  was  complete,  and 
the  starch,  previously  mixed  with  cold  water  poured 
in.  The  whole  was  then  boiled  until  it  became  as 
transparent  as  very  fluid,  freshly-made  soap. 

This  composition  was  poured  warm  into  the  rag-en- 
gine, and  the  action  of  the  cylinder,  in  a  very  short  time, 
produced  an  intimate  union  of  the  whole. 

The  pulp,  which  was  made  from  fermented  rags,  was 
already  alkaline  before  the  addition  was  made,  and  after 
being  thus  mixed  became  very  much  more  so.  A  solu- 
tion of  alum  was  added,  until  the  presence  of  an  alkali 
was  no  longer  indicated  by  test-paper.  After  being  car- 
ried to  the  vat,  however,  the  pulp  still  indicated  some 
trace  of  alkali,  and  it  was  therefore  saturated  by  the 
addition  of  a  little  alum.  This  was  repeated  after  the 
manufacture  of  each  post  of  paper,  so  as  to  render  the 
product  slightly  acid. 

With  a  hundred  kilogrammes  (220.47  lbs.  avoir.)  of 
pulp  thus  prepared,  five  posts  of  paper  were  made,  of 
which  the  sizing  was  at  first  slight,  but  became  succes- 
sively stronger,  so  that  the  last  post  was  very  well  sized. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


185 


An  examination  of  the  water  in  the  vat  explained  this 
progress  in  the  strength  of  the  size  ;  for  while  the  water 
which  ran  off  from  the  paper  was  clear,  that  in  the  vat 
was  milky,  and  iodine  colored  it  a  handsome  blue,  proving 
that  it  contained  starch.  Thus  each  time  that  the  fresh 
supply  of  pulp  was  placed  in  the  vat,  the  proportion  of 
starch  was  augmented  by  that  remaining  in  the  water. 
This  milky  water  was  filtered,  and  very  soon  choked  up 
the  filtering  paper,  which  was  found  to  have  become 
sized. 

The  illuminators  are  obliged  to  size  their  papers  upon 
applying  colors.  We  have  already  given  this  process, 
as  well  as  the  composition  of  Ackerman's  solution, 
which  was  analyzed  by  M.  Vauquelin. 

M.  D'Arcet  modified  the  latter  receipt,  so  as  to  give 
the  following  proportions : — 

100  parts  of  dry  pulp, 
4        "    Flemish  glue, 
8        "    resinous  soap, 
8        "  alum. 

To  obtain  the  exact  proportions  only  2.424  parts  ought 
to  be  used.  The  glue  is  allowed  to  swell  for  twelve 
hours  before  the  preparation  of  the  sizing.  The  resi- 
nous soap  was  made  with — 

4  kilog.  800  grammes  (10.57  lbs.  avoir.)  of  pulverized 
resin, 

2  kilog.  200  grammes  (4.88  lbs.  avoir.)  of  crystals  of 
soda. 

marking  800°  of  the  alkalimeter. 
100  litres  (22.01  gals.)  of  water. 

This  was  boiled  until  perfect  combination  was  ob- 
tained, the  size  added,  and  when  it  was  entirely  dis- 


186  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


solved,  a  warm  solution  of  alum  poured  in  containing  8 
kilog.  (17.63  lbs.)  of  that  salt.  Three-quarters  of  this 
size  was  poured  into  the  vat  upon  the  well-diluted  pulp, 
and  thoroughly  stirred.  A  post  of  paper  was  made  of 
this  mixture,  which,  when  rapidly  dried,  was  estimated 
to  be  sized  to  an  extent  represented  by  I.  The  remain- 
der of  the  size  was  then  turned  in,  and  a  second  post 
made,  which  was  judged  to  be  perfectly  sized. 

M.  Bujon's  account  of  this  experiment  transmitted  to 
M.  D'Arcet  is  thus  expressed : — 

"  It  is  beyond  doubt  that  this  process  presents  great 
advantages ;  the  manufacture  of  paper  is  perhaps  less 
difficult  even  than  when  the  pulp  is  unmixed. 

"  The  paper  is  readily  couched  upon  the  felts  and  the 
vat  only  requires  to  be  kept  somewhat  warm,  so  that  at 
the  time  of  raising  the  leaves,  they  may  not  have  entirely 
lost  their  heat.  The  paper  detaches  itself  from  the  felts 
without  difficulty  and  occasions  very  few  broken  leaves. 
It  dries  somewhat  more  slowly  upon  the  tribbles  and 
perhaps  has  a  little  less  resonance,  than  paper  sized  with 
starch;  but  on  the  whole  this  paper  is  better  sized, 
admits  of  a  higher  finish,  and  bears  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  the  very  best." 

One  of  the  motives  which  probably  determines  the 
preference  given  by  M.  Bujon  to  this  composition,  is 
that  it  may  be  poured  into  the  vat  at  the  time  of  making 
the  paper,  without  requiring  the  mixture  to  be  effected 
by  means  of  the  cylinder,  and  that  it  keeps  a  considera- 
ble time  without  spoiling. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  operation  was  per- 
formed with  fermented  pulp,  and  that  with  the  unfer- 
mented,  the  paper  would  have  been  better  sized  and 
required  less  of  the  mixture. 

"  For  all  this,"  adds  M.  Merimee,  who  makes  the 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


187 


report,  "  though  the  results  have  appeared  satisfactory 
to  an  experienced  manufacturer,  we  only  present  them 
as  a  starting  point  to  give  direction  to  experiments, 
which  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  if  we  wish  to  arrive 
at  perfection." 

Manufacturers  can  choose  between  this  last  process 
and  that  by  gelatine,  which  might  be  preferable  in  certain 
cases,  especially  when  the  manufacture  of  gelatine  has 
been  carried  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection.  "  It  is  for 
time,"  to  use  the  words  of  our  learned  reporter, "  to  decide 
whether  the  advantages  of  this  method  of  sizing  in  the 
pulp  are  such  as  they  appear,  and  whether  it  should  be 
resorted  to  in  all  cases." 

§  9.  M.  Canson's  Method  of  Sizing  in  the  Pulp. 

This  process  is  no  longer  a  secret,  but  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  great  number  of  persons ;  nevertheless,  as  the 
inventor  has  taken  out  a  patent  which  insures  him  a 
monopoly,  we  think  it  right  to  notify  the  reader  that  the 
following  description  of  the  process  does  not  give  him 
the  least  right  to  avail  himself  of  it  in  practice  until 
the  patent  has  expired  without  the  formal  and  written 
consent  of  M.  Canson. 

-  The  inventor  operates  in  this  wise:  A  wax  soap  is 
prepared,  of  which  the  following  are  the  proportions : 
to  one  litre  (1.76  pts.)  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
marking  5  degrees  on  Beaume's  hydrometer,  is  added 
0.5  kilog.  (1.10  lbs.  avoird.)  of  white  wax  and  the 
mixture  boiled  till  the  wax  is  completely  dissolved. 
This  liquid  soap  is  then  poured  into  30  or  40  litres 
(6.60  to  8.80  galls.)  of  boiling  water,  and  3  kilog. 
(6.60  lbs.)  of  potato  starch  well  mixed  with  water  are 
at  once  added.    The  mixture  is  stirred  till  it  thickens 


188  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


and  forms  a  paste,  which  if  kept  in  a  cool  place,  even  in 
summer  may  be  preserved  for  a  fortnight  without  spoil- 
ing. 

In  using  this  size  it  is  poured  into  the  rag-engine, 
containing  30  kilog.  (66.14  lbs.)  of  dry  rag  pulp  mixed 
with  the  quantity  of  water  required  by  the  quality  of 
paper  to  be  made,  and  the  composition  is  allowed  to 
become  well  incorporated  with  the  pulp.  There  are 
then  added  300,  400,  or  500  grammes  (0.66,  0.88, 
or  1.10  lbs.)  of  powdered  alum  dissolved  in  boiling 
water.  After  the  cylinder  has  been  worked  long  enough 
to  penetrate  the  pulp  thoroughly  with  these  ingredients, 
the  ordinary  operation  of  manufacture  is  continued. 

The  inventor  only  makes  use  of  this  process  for  fine 
papers  and  especially  those  destined  for  writing  purposes. 
For  common  papers  he  suppresses  the  wax  soap,  and 
only  uses  white  soap  and  starch,  though  he  still  impreg- 
nates the  pulp  with  these  substances  in  the  rag-engine. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1827,  M.  Canson  sub- 
mitted paper  of  his  manufacture  to  the  "  Societe  d'En- 
couragement,"  which  referred  the  examination  to  its 
commission.  M.  Merimee  made  his  report  upon  this 
subject,  at  the  meeting  of  the  11th  of  April,  in  which 
it  was  set  forth  that  sizing  in  the  pulp  had  answered 
very  well  for  writing  papers  ;  that  the  cobalt  blueing  was 
very  handsome,  giving  the  same  shade  upon  both  sides 
of  the  leaf,  and  that  in  this  particular  it  had  surpassed 
the  English ;  that  the  paper  intended  for  coloring  pre- 
sented irregularities  in  the  sizing,  so  that  several  sheets 
upon  which  M.  Merimee  had  spread  colors  were  found 
to  be  very  spotted.  In  the  manufacture  of  this  kind  of 
paper  alone,  MM.  Canson  are  behind  the  Dutch  or  the 
English. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  SIZING. 


189 


§  10.  Comparison  of  the  Two  Methods. 

We  have  given,  with  all  necessary  detail,  the  two 
methods  of  sizing  in  the  pulp,  which  are  at  the  present 
time  in  competition.  We  have  reported,  word  for  word, 
the  opinion  of  a  distinguished  manufacturer  on  the  pro- 
cess recommended  by  the  commission  of  the  "Society 
d'Encouragement,"  and  the  opinion  of  this  commission 
upon  the  specimens  sent  by  MM.  Canson.  The  result 
of  the  comparison  of  these  two  methods  is,  that  they 
have  both  been  entirely  successful,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  defects  in  that  of  M.  Canson,  which  will  un- 
doubtedly disappear  with  increased  care  in  manipulating. 

It,  therefore,  remains  for  the  intelligent  manufacturer 
to  choose  the  method,  which  experience  may  prove  to 
be  the  most  advantageous,  under  the  double  aspect  of 
cost  and  facility  of  operation. 

1st.  Under  the  head  of  cost,  we  refer  to  the  purchase 
of  material.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  wkx  employed 
by  M.  Canson  is  very  much  more  expensive  than  resin, 
and  the  same  holds  good  of  potato  starch  as  compared 
with  glue,  obtained  from  the  parings  of  saddlers,  leather- 
dressers,  and  tanners.  Potato  starch  is  undoubtedly 
lower  in  price  than  gelatinous  size,  and  sizing  with  wax . 
costs  double  what  it  does  to  employ  gelatine. 

2d.  In  regard  to  facility  of  operation,  those  necessi- 
tated by  the  commission's  process  are  limited  to  mixing 
the  size  with  the  pulp  in  the  vat  itself,  and  making  the 
mixture  into  paper  at  once;  whereas  to  carry  out  M. 
Canson's  plan  the  mixture  is  made  in  the  rag-engine  and 
has  then  to  be  transported  to  the  vat  before  beginning 
the  operation  of  manufacturing  the  paper. 

3d.  And  lastly,  as  to  the  right  of  putting  one  or  the 


190 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


other  of  these  two  methods  into  practice,  our  choice  can- 
not be  very  doubtful.  M.  Canson  required  the  payment 
of  one  thousand  francs  (about  |200)  to  allow  a  partici- 
pation in  his  )atent  right ;  whereas  the  "  Societe  d'En- 
couragement"  has  opened  the  important  discovery  of  its 
commission  to  the  public,  and  every  manufacturer  is  free 
to  use  it  without  any  compensation  whatever. 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  191 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  SUITABLE  FOR  MAKING  PAPER. 

The  increasing  consumption  of  paper  and  the  advance 
in  the  price  of  rags  have  given  alarm  to  a  few  croakers, 
who  fear  that  the  supply  of  this  raw  material,  so  essential 
to  paper-making,  may  eventually  give  out} 

The  experiments,  undertaken  with  a  view  of  substi- 
tuting for  rags  other  substances  less  costly,  and  the  sup- 
ply of  which  could  be  better  depended  on,  date  from  the 
beginning  of  this  century. 

Since  then,  all  the  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
without  distinction  have  been  passed  in  review,  and  the 
amount  of  time  and  money  spent  in  the  quest  of  this 
new  philosopher's  stone  is  ^  incalculable.  Every  day 
brings  fresh  hopes  and  fresh  failures,  and  it  will  con- 
tinue to  be  so  as  long  as  inventors  will  not  study  the 
subject  upon  its  true  grounds. 

We  are  about  to  enter  into  some  details,  which  may 
serve  as  a  starting  point  for  this  kind  of  investigation. 

Paper  is  formed  by  the  juxtaposition  of  an  infinite 
number  of  filaments  interlaced  in  every  direction.  These 
filaments  are  the  product  of  refuse  rags,  which  would 
have  no  value  if  they  had  not  been  found  adapted  to  • 
this  purpose. 

*  This  alarm  has  not  been  without  foundation  in  the  United  States, 
and  American  paper-makers  have  exerted  themselves  with  commend- 
able zeal,  enterprise,  and  success  in  finding  substitutes  for  rags,  and 
are  deserving  of  all  praise.  This  latter  they  have  been  far  from  re- 
ceiving.— Tr. 


192  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Chemical  analysis  proves  that  old  rags  are  almost  pure 
cellulose.  The  constitution  of  this  substance,  isomeric 
with  starch,  is  as  follows : — 

Carbon  44.44 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  6.18 
Oxygen  49.38 


100.00 

By  the  incineration  of  rags  we  obtain  one-half,  three- 
quarters,  or  one  per  cent,  of  ash,  whereas  cellulose  leaves 
no  residue  whatever. 

Rags  being  the  product 'of  textile  matters,  we  may  con- 
clude, a  priori^  that  all  filamentous  substances  are  suited 
to  the  manufacture  of  paper,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  axiom. 

We  have  united,  in  the  following  tables,  the  principal 
textile  materials,  employed  at  the  present  day  to  meet 
the  demands  of  industry. 

Table  of  Textile  Materials, 

1.  Abaca  (Manilla  hemp). 

2.  Agave  of  Cuba  (American  aloe  or  century 
plant). 

3.  Cultivated  hemp. 

4.  White  hemp  of  Hayti. 

5.  Indian  hemp. 

6.  Cotton. 

7.  Acacia. 

8.  Fibres  of  aloes. 

9.  Spanish  broom. 

10.  Silkweed. 

11.  Hops. 

12.  Jute  (Bengal  hemp). 

1 3.  Down  of  the  date-tree. 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  193 

.  14.  Common  flax. 

15.  Chinese  hemp. 

16.  Textile  mallows. 

17.  Paper  mulberry. 

18.  White  mulberry. 

19.  Chinese  nettle. 

20.  Phormium  tenax  (New  Zealand  flax). 

21.  Fibres  of  false  aloes. 

22.  Esparto. 

23.  Linden  tree. 

24.  Yucca. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  different  substances 
possess  in  the  same  degree  the  property  of  being  con- 
verted immediately  into  paper,  without  passing  through 
a  long  and  costly  series  of  manipulations. 

Cotton  might  be  employed  in  the  first  instance,  but 
unfortunately  its  high  price  will  not  permit  it  to  enter 
into  the  composition  of  paper  until  after  having  passed 
through  the  condition  of  texture  into  that  of  rag. 

The  same  is  true  of  hemp  and  flax,  constituting  the 
two  principal  textile  materials  of  Europe  derived  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom. 

M.  Th.  Mareau  has  prepared  a  table  of  the  numerous 
losses  in  weight  experienced  by  flax  before  its  final  con- 
version into  paper. 

These  figures  are  of  a  nature  singularly  to  cool  the 
enthusiasm  of  inventors  in  seeking  substitutes  for  rags. 

Flax  is  an  eminently  textile  material,  especially  fitted 
for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  yet  what  do  we  get 
from  one  hundred  kilogrammes  of  raw  flax]  4.40  per 
cent,  of  retted  flax,  which  are  reduced  to  less  than  two 
per  cent,  after  their  conversion  into  paper. 
13 


194  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


o 

Weight  remain- 

Original weight. 

;-i 

O) 

ing  after  each 

Ph 

operation. 

Condition  oi  tne 

Nature  of  the 

g 

Tnntpri'^  1 

manipulation. 

French 

English 

French 

Eng. 

• 

kilog. 

lbs. 

Pi 

kilog. 

IDS. 



Kaw  picked  flax 

1  A  A   A  A 

100.00 

220.47 

Drying.  .  .  . 

75 

25.00 

55.10 

Flakes  of  dry  flax 

25.00 

55.10 

Rippling.  .  . 

30 

17.50 

37.47 

Rippled  flax  .  .  . 

17.50 

37.47 

Retting  .  .  . 

75 

4.40 

9.69 

Retted  flax   .  .  . 

4.40 

9.69 

Combing   .  . 

5 

4.18 

9.20 

Combed  flax  .  .  . 

4.18 

9.20 

Spinning   .  . 

15 

3.55 

7.82 

Spun  thread  .  .  . 

3.55 

7.82 

Boiling  in  lye 

20 

2.84 

6.18 

Boiled  thread  .  . 

2.84 

6.18 

Weaving   .  . 

0 

2.84 

6.18 

Linen  cloth  .  .  . 

2.84 

6.18 

Bleaching  .  . 

15 

2.41 

5.30 

White  linen  .  .  . 

2.41 

5.30 

Paper  making 

30 

1.69 

3.71 

For  hemp,  the  proportions  of  the  loss  are  still  greater. 
According  to  M.  de  Gasparin,  194  kilog.  (427.70  lbs. 
avoird.)  of  the  dry  plant  produce  5.40  kilog.  (11.90  lbs.) 
of  tow.  Thus,  to  produce  100  kilog.  (220.47  lbs.)  of  tow, 
it  takes  3,592  kilog.  (3.533  tons)  of  the  dry  plants. 

Fine  textile  materials  being  employed  for  weaving, 
it  is  obvious  that  only  the  coarsest  kinds  can  be  directly 
used  for  making  paper,  such  as  those  which  grow  abun- 
dantly and  without  cultivation  in  a  country  where  the 
price  of  land  is  very  low. 

Among  the  plants  which  best  fulfill  these  conditions,  is 
the  Spanish  broom,  which  grows  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Africa,  and  especially  Algeria. 
But  here  we  are  met  by  a  fresh  obstacle;  for  the  crude 
material  before  being  transformed  into  paper,  requires 
the  use  of  chemical  agents  to  remove  the  gummy,  resin- 
ous, alkaline,  and  coloring  matters,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  cellulose  as  nearly  pure  as  possible. 

The  action  of  these  substances  has  moreover  to  be 
regulated  to  prevent  the  strength  of  the  fibres  from  being 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  195 

destroyed,  and  thus  occasioning  so  much  waste  of  the 
material,  that  its  application  to  industrial  purposes  would 
become  impossible. 

Let  us  now  consider  some  details  concerning  the  nature 
and  composition  of  this  plant. 

Esparto,  or  Spanish  broom,  grows  in  siliceous  and  fer- 
ruginous soils,  alternating  in  Algeria  with  the  dwarf 
palm,  the  mastic,  the  asphodel,  and  the  squill. 

As  in  the  case  of  flax  and  hemp,  this  plant  should  be 
gathered  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe.  Nevertheless,  if  too 
green,  the  fibres  being  more  or  less  transparent  would 
give  a  sort  of  vegetable  paper. 

The  drying  requires  eight  days.  In  the  process,  the 
plant  loses  40  per  cent,  of  its  weight.  It  has  been  cal- 
culated that  one  man  can  gather,  in  a  day,  from  100  to 
150  kilog.  (220.47  to  330.70  lbs.  avoird.)  according  to 
his  strength  and  skill. 

In  Spain,  where  this  substance  is  used  for  making 
ropes,  mats,  and  carpets,  it  is  not  gathered  until  com- 
pletely ripe.  This  is  disadvantageous  for  paper-making, 
as  the  silica  and  iron  are  more  closely  combined,  and,  in 
consequence,  necessitate  longer  and  more  costly  boiling 
and  bleaching. 

Before  subjecting  this  material  to  the  boiling  and 
bleaching  processes,  it  is  essential  to  crush  it  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  by  means  of  fluted  rollers ;  as  the 
fibres  are  more  permeable  to  chemical  agents  when 
separated. 

Esparto,  after  being  boiled  with  lye,  retains  enough 
tenacity  to  be  separated  into  long  shreds.  It  contains 
a  red  coloring  matter  which  becomes  soluble  under  the 
combined  influence  of  chlorine  and  caustics. 

The  waters  used  in  washing  them  assume  a  blood  red 
tinge. 


196  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  waste  of  material  may  be  thus  estimated : — 

Yellow  coloring  matter       ...  12 

Red         "  "  ...  6 

Resin  and  gum  Y 

Salts  constituting  the  ash    .       .       .  1.500 

26.500 

Paper  fibres       .       .       .       .       .  13.500 

100.000 

The  yellow  coloring  matter  being  soluble  in  alkalies, 
is  eliminated  after  the  first  boiling. 

Although  esparto  is  a  textile  material,  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  paper  it  affords  possesses  the  same 
amount  of  toughness  and  suppleness  as  that  made  from 
rags. 

Properly  speaking,  it  should  only  be  considered  as  a 
supplementary  material,  allowing  the  reservation  of  rags 
for  choice  papers. 

By  mixing  esparto  with  rags  of  poorer  quality,  very 
good  printing  paper  may  be  manufactured. 

The  use  of  Spanish  broom  is  very  general  in  England  ; 
and  is  contained  in  almost  all  the  daily  papers,  including 
the  Times, 

The  importation,  in  1862,  amounted  to  18,000,000 
kilog.  (17,716  tons). 

Some  daily  papers  published  at  Edinburgh  are  com- 
posed of — 

75  Spanish  broom. 
25  rags. 

100 

Its  application  in  France  is  very  limited,  where  the 
cost  of  chemicals  is  too  great.  Nevertheless  some  paper- 
mills  are  established  in  Marseilles  regularly  using  esparto, 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  197 


among  which  we  will  mention  that  of  M.  Horace  Bou- 
cher &  Cie. 

Whatever  may  be  the  fibrous  material  employed,  the 
principle  of  manipulation  is  the  same.  It  consists  of 
washing,  crushing  and  repeated  boiling  with  lye,  com- 
bined with  the  operation  of  bleaching. 

Outside  of  textile  materials,  the  attention  of  some 
manufacturers  has  been  called  to  straw ^and  wood  as  capa- 
ble of  replacing  rags  to  a  certain  extent  for  different 
papers. 

After  these  two  principal  materials,  the  following 
numerous  vegetable  substances  have  been  proposed  by 
inventors. 

Substances  proposed  for  the  manufacture  of  paper — 

1st.  Bark  of  the  acacia. 

"  "  birch  tree. 

"  "  hazel  tree. 

"  "  maple  tree. 

"  "  mulberry  tree. 

"  "  plantain  tree. 

"  "  linden  tree. 

"  "  willow  tree,  etc. 

2d.  Leaves  of  trees,  and  the  acerose  leaves  of  pines, 
firs,  etc. 

3d.  Various  plants,  such  as — 
Algae. 
Heather. 
Bryony. 
Thistle. 
Dog-grass. 
.  Clematis. 
Oats. 
Broom. 


198  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

Hops. 

Canes. 

Lichens. 

Maize. 

Mosses. 

Nettle. 

Reeds. 

Tobacco. 

4th.  Roots — 

Carrots,  turnips. 
Lucien. 
Sainfoin. 
Clover,  etc. 

To  complete  the  list,  we  should  have  to  add  seeds  of  * 
hemp  and  flax,  beet  pulp,  the  refuse  of  breweries  and 
distilleries,  of  sorgo,  asphodel,  etc. 

We  will  say  a  few  words,  further  on,  of  the  processes 
to  be  employed  in  order  to  obtain  paper  or  boards  by 
means  of  these  different  substances,  the  most  of  which, 
however,  are  incapable  of  advantageous  application. 

Let  us  consider  the  more  important  study  of  papers 
made  from  straw  and  wood. 

§  1.  Straw  Papers. 

The  first  attempts  to  make  paper  from  straw  go  back 
to  the  beginning  of  this  century,  as  is  proved  by  the 
patent  taken  out  by  Sequin.  The  process  consisted  in 
subjecting  the  material  to  the  action  of  a  lye  made  of  a 
mixture  of  lime  and  soda,  or  potassa,  until  the  substance 
was  softened  enough  to  be  crushed  between  the  fingers, 
After  washing  followed  by  trituration,  the  stuff  was 
converted  into  paper. 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER. 


199 


The  numerous  patents,  taken  out  with  the  same  ob- 
ject, are  based  upon  analogous  principles.  Schinz  man- 
aged to  make  packing  paper  of  considerable  strength, 
by  mixing  50  per  cent,  of  coarse  rags  with  straw  pulp, 
prepared  in  the  following  manner : — 

100  kilog.  (220.47  lbs.  avoir.)  of  wheat  straw,  finely 
chopped,  and  80  kilog.  (176.32  lbs.)  of  quick-lime  were 
placed  in  a  caldron  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to 
form  a  kind  of  pulp.  The  mixture  was  stirred,  and 
poured  into  a  second  boiler  every  day  for  a  fortnight. 

This  material  was  then  reduced  to  pulp,  and  mixed 
with  the  rag  pulp  in  the  beating  engine.  The  product 
obtained  was  half-sized,  of  a  yellowish  tinge  and  great 
strength. 

Straw  contains  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  which  is 
more  or  less  communicated  to  the  paper,  unless  subjected 
to  a  succession  of  boilings  and  bleachings,  with  gaseous 
or  liquid  chlorine.  In  this  case  the  waste  of  material  is 
very  much  increased. 

The  majority  of  manufacturers  who  employ  straw  are 
satisfied  with  subjecting  it  to  maceration  with  lime,  and 
succeed  in  making  common  wrapping  paper,  for  which 
there  is  a  considerable  demand  at  present.  If,  however, 
we  wish  to  make  common  printing  paper,  such  as  news- 
paper, etc.,  of  straw  pulp,  it  is  indispensable  to  bleach 
with  repeated  chlorine  and  acid  baths.  The  mixture  is 
then  made  in  the  proportion  of — 

25  to  40  per  cent,  of  straw  pulp. 
75  to  60      "      "    rag  pulp. 

The  manufacture  is  thus  only  profitable  in  localities 
where  chemicals  are  at  a  low  price.  We  have  seen  very 
handsome  papers  made  in  England,  with  80  to  90  per 


200  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


cent,  of  straw,  but  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
profits  will  render  the  process  practicable. 

The  nature,  of  the  straw  and  the  composition  of  the 
soils  in  which  it  is  grown  are  not  unimportant  mat- 
ters to  the  paper-maker.  The  hardness  of  straws  pro- 
ceeds from  the  quantity  of  silica  interspersed  throughout 
their  substance,  and  forming  an  obstacle  to  their  con- 
version into  paper,  by  binding  together  the  fibrous  parts 
of  the  stalk. 

The  straw  to  be  chosen  is  that  of  wheat,  as  being  the 
most  tender.  This  fact  is  in  accordance  with  chemical 
analysis,  which  gives  the  following  proportions  of  silica 
contained  in  the  three  .principal  cereals  of  our  soil: — 

1st.  Wheat  straw,  4.3  per  cent,  of  silica. 
2d.  Rye        "  6.3 
3d.  Barley     "  6.9 

The  knots  of  graminious  plants,  in  general,  are  in- 
jected with  a  much  greater  quantity  of  silica  than  the 
intermediate  parts,  and  should  therefore  be  carefully 
removed  when  the  straw  is  to  be  converted  into  white 
paper  pulp. 

Among  other  straws  which  have  been  tried,  we  will 
mention  maize,  which  gives  a  naturally  sized  paper  of 
great  strength,  and  which,  at  one  time,  very  much  ex- 
cited public  attention. 

Maize  stalks  unbleached,  only  boiled  with  lye,  and 
added  to  rag  pulp,  are  suitable  for  making  packing- 
paper.  The  product  possesses  a  certain  tenacity  not 
offered  by  that  of  other  straws.  This  substance  may 
then  answer  very  well  in  countries  where  it  grows  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  allow  of  its  employment  in  the  arts. 

In  some  paper-mills,  and  especially  that  of  Cusset, 
attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  into  paper  the  infe- 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  201 


rior  qualities  of  hay  produced  in  marshy  soils.  The  pro- 
duct obtained  was  of  a  dingy,  green  tinge,  and  had  little 
consistency.  It  may,  however,  answer  for  common 
printing  paper. 

The  composition  adopted  for  the  pulp  was : — 

50.0  parts  of  hay. 

12.5       "     tarred  rope. 

12.5       "     linen  and  woollen. 

25.0       "  cottons. 

100.0 

Boiling  hay  in  lye  is  an  easy  operation,  and  the  un- 
bleached pulp  may  be  used  for  wrapping  papers.  The 
paper  made  of  this  material  is  more  supple  than  that 
obtained  from  straw. 

A  Swedish  newspaper  has  been  printed,  for  several 
years  past,  upon  paper  made  with  horse  dung.  By  wash- 
ing, all  the  soluble  parts  are  carried  off  and  used  for 
manure;  and  the  parts  of  the  hay  which  have  not  been 
assimilated  by  the  organism  of  the  animal,  having  under- 
gone a  previous  bleaching  by  means  of  the  gastric  and 
other  juices,  require  a  smaller  proportion  of  chemical 
agents  to  effect  their  transformation  into  pulp. 

§  2.  Wood  Paper. 

For  twenty  years  wood  has  been  the  object  of  numer- 
ous, and  at  first  fruitless,  experiments.  At  the  present 
day,  thanks  to  the  persevering  efforts  of  a  few  inventors, 
practical  processes  are  known  which  allow  us  to  rely 
upon  this  material,  when  mixed  with  rags,  for  making 
the  commoner  kinds  of  white  writing  and  printing 
paper. 


202 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


For  several  years,  the  Tilia  americana  has  been  used  in 
America  for  newspapers. 

In  France  and  Belgium  white  and  resinous  woods, 
such  as  pine,  fir,  etc.,  are  employed. 

It  has  been  shown  by  the  experiments  of  M.  Fremy, 
that  wood  is  not  made  up  of  cells  solidified  by  incrusting 
materials,  as  was  long  supposed,  but  of  two  superimposed 
layers ;  one  exterior,  short-grained,  and  brittle,  which  he 
calls  eocofihrose  ;  the  other  internal,  supple,  and  fibrous, 
to  which  he  has  given  the  name  of  fibrose. 

In  order  to  make  wood  paper,  then,  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  dissolve  the  exofibrose  and  employ  the  remaining 
fibrose. 

This  first  layer  is  acted  upon  by  alkalies,  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  the  hypochlorites.^ 

The  machines  employed  to  separate  the  fibres  of  wood 
are  of  different  kinds.  That  invented  by  M.  Vcelter 
consists  in  a  grindstone,  which  consumes  several  logs  of 
wood  placed  against  its  circumference  and  pressed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  keep  them  always  in  contact  with 
it  during  the  entire  duration  of  the  work. 

The  Chauchard  machine,  on  the  contrary,  crushes  the 
chips  between  cast  iron  rollers,  and  the  material  is 
triturated  by  means  of  a  cylinder  engine.  The  pulp  is 
strained  through  a  sieve,  placed  in  the  cap  of  the  engine, 
and  may  then  be  used  immediately  for  the  manufacture 
of  common  papers.  Wood  alone  gives  too  brittle  a 
paper,  and  the  short  thick  fibres  do  not  yield  that  sup- 
pleness which  is  characteristic  of  rag  paper. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  it  takes  0^380  (14.88  in.) 
of  wood  to  make  100  kilog.  of  pulp. 

*  The  application  of  this  process  to  the  arts  has  not  yet  verified 
the  theory. 


DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  MAKING  PAPER.  203 


The  motive  force  necessary  to  separate  the  fibres  of 
wood  is  quite  great.  It  is  calculated  that  a  25  horse 
power  is  required  for  24  hours,  in  order  to  produce  300 
kilog.  (661.42  lbs.),  and  a  44  horse  power  in  order  to 
produce  750  kilog.  (1653.54  lbs.)  of  wood  pulp. 

We  give  as  an  example  of  the  mixture  the  propor- 
tions admitted  by  M.  Yoelter,  a  paper-maker  at  Heiden- 
heim. 

Post  paper  .  .  20  per  cent,  of  poplar  wood,  80  percent.of  rags. 
Writing  paper  .  .  33  "  "  "  6t 
Fine  printing  paper  .  20  "  "  "  80 
Common  printing  paper  50  "  pine  wood,  50 
Brown  wrapping  paper  40  "  "  60 
Gray  wrapping  paper  50  "  "  "  50 
Blue  paper  for  covers    33       "        "       "  67 

In  Belgium,  paper  for  newspapers  is  made  of — 
60  parts  birch  wood, 
20    "  Kaolin, 
20    "     coarse  gray  rags. 

The  wood  pulp  is  added  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before 
the  end  of  the  beating  process.  The  wood  being  neither 
boiled  nor  bleached,  the  proportion  of  bleaching  should 
be  diminished,  as  a  part  of  the  coloring  matter  is  not 
destroyed  by  acids. 

The  use  of  chemical  agents  to  bleach  wood  pulp 
requires  much  skill,  otherwise  we  run  a  great  risk  of 
having  a  pulp  without  consistency,  and  giving  rise  to 
considerable  loss  of  material. 

The  introduction  of  unboiled  and  unbleached  pulp  is 
considered  so  great  an  economy,  that  several  manufac- 
turers of  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France  have  decided 
to  make  additions  to  their  paper-mills,  in  order  specially 
to  prepare  wood  pulp. 


204 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS  EMPLOYED  IN 
PAPER-MAKING. 

The  nature  of  cotton,  linen,  and  hempen  rags  may 
be  determined  by  chemical  tests  and  by  microsopic 
examination,  when  the  material  is  comparatively  new. 

The  fibres  of  cotton  and  hemp  seen  through  the 
microscope,  present  the  appearance  of  rigid  cylindrical 
tubes,  with  intercepted  intervals  like  straws,  reeds,  &c. 
They  are  elongated  cells,  glued  together  by  a  material 
of  denser  texture,  which  is  susceptible  to  the  action  of 
acids  and  alkalies. 

During  the  process  of  "  retting^^^  which  has  for  its 
object  the  destruction  of  the  gummy  matter  uniting  the 
fibres  with  each  other  throughout  their  entire  length, 
this  substance  interposed  between  each  cell  is  entirely, 
or  in  part,  destroyed  by  the  fermentation,  which  propor- 
tionally diminishes  the  strength  of  the  fibres. 

The  diameter  of  hemp  fibres  may  be  estimated  to  be 
from  2V  ^0  3V      ^  millimetre  (x oW 0       toVo  0 
inch).    Those  of  linen  are  still  finer  and  have  a  silkier 
appearance. 

The  fibrillae  of  cotton,  on  the  contrary,  are  transparent 
tubes,  flattened  in  the  middle  throughout  their  entire 
length,  presenting  the  appearance  of  two  parallel  rolls, 
united  by  a  very  thin  partition.  They  cannot  be  better 
compared  than  to  a  T  rail,  twisted  several  times  upon 
itself. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  205 


The  diameters  of  the  fibres  vary  from  -^-^  to  -^-^  of  a 
millimetre  ( yoVo      t Ao  inch). 

When  these  fibres  have  been  brought  into  the  condi- 
tion of  textures,  more  or  less  worn,  these  microscopic 
characteristics  are  insufiicient;  the  straight  and  rigid 
conformation  of  the  hemp  and  flax  fibres  having  disap- 
peared. 

It  is  then  necessary  to  resort  to  chemical  reagents. 
Linen  and  cotton  fibres  may  be  distinguished  in  several 
ways. 

1st.  A  boiling  solution  of  potassa  colors  the  fibres  of 
linen  quite  a  deep  yellow;  whereas  its  action  upon 
cotton  is  very  feeble. 

To  make  use  of  this  test,  a  piece  of  the  cloth  to  be 
tested  is  placed  in  a  boiling  solution  of  potassa,  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  caustic  potassa  and  one  of  water. 
After  two  or  three  minutes'  immersion,  the  excess  of 
alkali  is  expressed  by  means  of  several  folds  of  bibulous 
paper,  and  the  successive  fibres  of  the  warp  and  woof 
are  counted ;  those  of  linen  being  of  a  deep  and  those 
of  cotton  of  a  light  yellow,  or  white. 

2d.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  quickly  attacks  cot»- 
ton  fibres,  and  converts  them  into  gum,  while  linen  fibres 
remain  white  and  opaque.  By  washing  the  gummy  mat- 
ter is  removed,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  neutralized  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  caustic  potassa.  The 
threads  of  the  sample  having  been  counted,  the  missing 
ones  will  represent  those  of  cotton. 

We  owe  to  M.  Vincent  the  following  process  for  dis- 
tinguishing iinen  and  hemp  threads  from  those  of  the 
Phormium  tenax. 

The  texture  to  be  tested  is  dipped  in  nitric  acid  at 
36°,  containing  hyponitric  acid,  when  a  red  color  at  once 
appears  on  the  raw  and  imperfectly  bleached  products 


206  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


of  the  phormiiim  tenax;  whereas  the  linen  and  hempen 
threads  are  imperceptibly,  or  very  slightly,  colored. 

We  obtain  a  more  striking  reaction  by  dipping  the 
texture  in  a  saturated  solution  of  chlorine  gas.  If  after- 
wards a  few  drops  of  ammonia  are  poured  upon  the 
sample,  the  threads  of  the  phormium  tenax  become  violet- 
red;  this  color  may  be  removed  by  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid. 

The  hempen  threads  assume  a  slightly  rosy  hue,  which 
somewhat  deepens  with  tow  made  from  hemp  allowed 
to  remain  in  stagnant  water.  Linen,  on  the  contrary, 
preserves  its  original  color. 

These  reactions  present  no  certainty  except  in  the 
case  of  crude  materials,  or  such  as  have  been  but  little 
worn;  we  have,  however,  thought  it  right  to  give  them, 
as  being,  to  a  certain  degree,  useful  in  some  instances. 

In  paper-making  linen  and  cotton  rags  are  distinguished 
by  the  touch,  and  the  workwomen  very  soon  acquire  suf- 
ficient skill  to  make  this  distinction  rapidly. 

§  1.  The  Waters. 

The  degree  of  pureness  of  the  waters,  used  in  the  dif- 
ferent processes  of  paper-making,  has  a  great  influence 
upon  the  quality  of  the  papers. 

Murky  water,  containing  argillaceous  and  silicious  sub- 
stances, turns  the  pulp  yellow;  that  containing  saline 
matters  in  solution,  to  a  certain  extent,  destroys  the 
brilliancy  of  the  coloring  materials,  or  forms  an  impedi- 
ment in  sizing  with  gelatine.  If  the  water  contains 
organic  matter  in  solution,  it  sometimes  prevents  the 
manufacture  of  superfine  papers. 

It  is,  therefore,  important  to  determine,  at  different 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  207 


seasons  of  the  years,  the  composition  of  the  water  em- 
ployed in  washing  and  other  manipulation. 

We  obtain  by  filtration  the  amount  of  argillaceous  and 
silicious  matters  held  in  suspension  in  the  water. 

The  calcareous  salts  held  in  solution  are  precipitated 
by  means  of  a  few  grammes  of  alum  or  carbonate  of  soda. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  complete  analysis,  the  most 
certain  method  is  to  evaporate  several  litres  of  the  liquid 
and  examine  the  residuum  after  evaporation,  for  the 
different  proportions  of  the  substances  contained. 

The  proportion  of  calcareous  salts  may  be  detected  in 
a  very  simple  way,  founded  on  the  principle  announced 
by  Dr.  Clark,^  that  the  hardness  of  water  being  propor- 
tional to  the  earthy  salts  it  contains,  the  quantity  of  the 
tincture  of  soap  it  requires  to  produce  a  foam  will  give 
the  measure  of  its  hardness.  y 

Take  in  the  flask  A,  Plate  I.,  Fig.  11,  forty  cubic  cen- 
timetres (2.44  cubic  inches)  of  the  water  to  be  tested, 
and  pour  the  test  liquid  into  the  burette  till  it  reaches 
a  level  marked  on  the  scale.  The  divisions  of  the  scale 
comprised  between  the  mark  and  the  zero  point,  repre- 
sent the  proportion  of  the  liquid  necessary  to  produce 
the  phenomenon  of  foaming  with  pure  distilled  water. 
The  composition  of  this  liquid  is  to  be  so  calculated  that 
each  degree  of  the  scale  shall  represent  0.10  grammes 
(1.544  grains  troy)  of  soap,  neutralized  by  one  litre  (1.76 
pints)  of  water  subjected  to  experiment,  and  correspond 
with  0.01  gramme  (0.154  grains)  of  carbonate  of  lime 
for  the  same  quantity. 

*  Prof.  Clark,  "Repertory  of  Patent  Inventions,"  1841,  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "A  New  Process  for  Purifying  the  Waters  supplied  to  the 
Metropolis,"  and  "On  the  Examination  of  Water  for  its  Hardness." 
{Pharmaceutical  Journal,  vol.  vi.  p.  526.    London.) — Tr. 


208  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER  MAKING. 


When  the  water  is  poured  into  the  flask  the  test 
liquid  is  added  gradually,  by  trying  at  intervals  whether 
by  stirring  it  will  produce  a  light  and  persistent  foam. 
When  the  foam  is  produced,  the  number  of  divisions 
represent  the  hydrotimetrical  degree  of  the  water  under 
examination. 

Distilled  water  marks  0.0° 
Snow  "  "  2.50 
Kain        "        "  3.50 

§  2.  Alkalimetrical  Test. 

The  soda  of  commerce  has  no  value,  except  in  so  far 
as  it  contains  soda  in  the  condition  of  a  carbonate,  or  of 
caustic  soda.  To  determine  the  quantity  of  these  ma- 
terials present,  we  resort  to  tests  with  the  alkalimeter. 

The  principle  upon  which  this  experiment  is  based  is 
as  follows :  Given  a  dilute  solution  of  free  alkali,  of 
carbonate  or  sulphate  of  potassa  or  soda,  of  chloride  of 
potassium  or  sodium,  etc.  Pure  sulphuric  acid,  diluted 
with  water,  is  added  to  the  mixture;  this  acid  acts 
only  on  the  free  alkali,  or  on  the  carbonate,  and,  as  long  as 
the  acid  is  not  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce 
a  neutral  sulphate ;  the  liquid  manifests  an  alkaline  re- 
action ;  but  when  the  base  is  saturated,  the  solution 
becomes  neutral  to  colored  tests,  and  when  this  point  is 
exceeded  never  so  little,  the  liquid  will  redden  litmus 
paper.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  determine  the  exact 
moment  of  saturation. 

Experiment  shows  that,  if  the  substance  analyzed  is 
pure  potassa,  it  would  take  5  grammes  (77.20  grs.  troy) 
of  monohydrated  sulphuric  acid  to  neutralize  4.807 
grammes  (74.11  grs.)  of  potassa. 

'  Let  us  suppose  that  we  are  operating  on  the  potash  of 
commerce,  containing  water,  carbonic  acid,  chloride  of* 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS. 


209 


potassium,  and  sulphate  of  potassa.  If  instead  of  5 
grammes  2.5  are  sufficient,  this  potash  contains  50  per 
cent,  of  foreign  and  worthless  matters. 

To  make  this  experiment  48.07  grammes  (741.12 
grs.)  of  the  potash  to  be  tested  are  weighed  off  and  dis- 
solved in  such  a  quantity  of  water  that  the  solution 
shall  occupy  half  a  litre,  or  500  cubic  centimetres  (30.50 
cub.  in.).  By  means  of  a  pipette  take  50  cubic  centi- 
metres, or  one-tenth  the  Hquid  (3.05  cub.  in.),  and  this 
volume  will  contain  in  consequence  4.807  grammes 
(74.11  grs.)  of  the  potash  to  be  tested. 

This  alkaline  solution  is  then  poured  into  the  vessel, 
in  which  it  is  to  be  neutralized. 

The  sulphuric  acid  is  prepared  by  dissolving  100 
grammes  (154.42  grs.)  of  monohydrated  sulphuric  acid 
in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  complete  the  volume 
of  1  litre  (1.76  pt.) 

If  we  now  take  a  burette,  graduated  according  to  half 
cubic  centimetres  (0.0305  cub.  in.),  100  divisions  will 
correspond  to  5  grammes  (77.20  grs.)  of  pure  acid,  and 
from  this  it  results  that,  if  it  takes  100  divisions  to  com- 
plete the  saturation,  the  potash  under  consideration 
would  be  pure.  For  60  divisions  the  proportion  of  alkali 
would  be  60  per  100. 

The  number  of  divisions,  or  degrees,  on  the  alkalime- 
trical  burette  expresses,  therefore,  the  proportion  by 
weight  of  the  alkali  contained  in  the  material  to  be  ex- 
amined. 

The  operation  is  performed  in  the  following  manner : 
After  having  poured  into  the  vessel  the  50  cubic  centi- 
metres of  the  alkaline  solution,  it  is  colored  with  litmus, 
so  as  to  give  it  a  light  blue  tinge.  The  vessel  is  placed 
upon  a  white  paper  to  enable  us  the  better  to  appreciate 
the  phenomenon  of  discoloration. 
14 


210  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  acid  solution  of  the  burette  is  then  poured  in  by 
degrees,  while  the  vessel  is  rotated  to  give  greater  effect 
to  the  chemical  reaction. 

The  color  does  not  change  for  the  first  few  moments  ; 
for  the  carbonic  acid  driven  off  by  the  sulphuric  acid 
passes  over  to  that  part  of  the  carbonate  not  yet  decom- 
posed, which  in  this  way  becomes  changed  to  the  bicar- 
bonate. 

The  liquid  then  begins  to  assume  a  vinous  red  color,  - 
which  announces  the  disengagement  of  the  carbonic 
acid/  We  continue  to  pour  in  the  acid  with  greater 
care,  trying  whether  a  drop  of  the  solution  taken  with 
a  glass  rod,  will  not  produce  a  red  streak  upon  blue 
litmus  paper.  As  long  as  the  red  color  thus  produced  is 
not  persistent,  the  reaction  is  due  to  carbonic  acid ;  as 
soon,  however,  as  it  becomes  permanent  and  appears 
brighter  the  operation  is  completed. 

The  number  of  divisions  used  are  then  read  off  on 
the  scale  of  the  burette.  Generally  two  or  three  experi- 
ments are  made  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  first  result.^ 

The  alkalinity  of  several  of  the  potashes  of  commerce 
is  here  shown. 

Potash  of  Tuscany      ....  56.00 

"  Russia       ....  53.01 

"     (red)  of  America     .       .       .  55.^0 

"     (pearlash)  of  America      .       .  54. °1 

"  Vosges  .       .       .  31.05 

"     crude  of  molasses     .       .       .  40. °0 

"     common  purified       .       .       .  59.oT 

purified   69.05 

*  The  reaction  in  this  case  may  be  thus  stated  : — 

1st  addition.  2d  addition. 

2  (KO,CO,)  +  H0,S03  =  K0,S03  +  K0,2C0,    +H0  803= 
2KO,S03  +  HO  +  C03  escaping.— Tr. 
^  In  this  country  the  alkalimeter  is  so  graduated  that  one  degree  of 
the  test  acid  will  exactly  neutralize  one  grain  of  pure  carbonate  of  soda. 
— Tr. 


« 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS. 


211 


For  testing  soda,  the  material  generally  employed  in 
French  paper-making,  31.85  grammes  (478.74  grs.),  are 
to  be  taken,  as  the  specific  gravity  of  this  substance  is 
greater  than  that  of  potash,  but  the  steps  to  be  followed 
are  exactly  the  same. 

The  alkalinity  of  these  different  sodas  of  commerce 
have  been  given  by  M.  Girardin : — 

I  ashy  gray, 
dark  gray. 


55  to  60 
30  "  32 
28  32 


Soda 


Carbonate  i 
of  ] 
soda  ( 

Natron  ( 
(native  •< 
carbonate)  ( 


of  Alicant, 
"  Carthagena 
"  Teneriffe 
"  Marboune  or 

Salicor       .       .    13  "  14 

Aigues  mortes  or 
"  Blauquette  .       .      2  " 

Artificial  crude  .  18  " 
crude  .       .       .    40  " 

refined  :. 

(notcaustic  40 

Crystals  of  soda  .    34  " 

(old    n  " 


Of  Egypt 


(new  45 
.  20 


y  ashy  gray. 

5  blackish. 
*7    dead  white  powder. 
34    violet  colored. 
70  yellowish  white  or  gray 

dead  white 

36    transparent  white. 
18    dirty  grayish  brown. 

dead  white 


Barbary 

Generally  the  refined  carbonate  or  crystals  of  soda 
are  employed.  The  degree  of  the  first  being  the  highest, 
it  should  be  preferred  in  order  to  economize  the  cost  of 
transportation  of  the  water  of  crystallization. 

For  common  papers  the  crude  sodas  of  the  locality  in 
v^hich  tjie  mill  is  situated  may  be  advantageously  used. 


§  3.  Examination  of  Limes. 

The  principal  substances  to  be  met  with  in  limes  are 
magnesia,  silica,  alumina,  and  traces  of  the  oxides  of 
iron. 

The  limes  to  be  preferred  for  use  in  paper-making  are 
the  rich  white  kinds,  which  contain  at  least  90  per  cent, 
of  pure  lime. 


212 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


To  make  an  analysis  of  any  given  lime,  take  10 
grammes  (154.42  grs.  troy)  of  the  material  and  heat 
them  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  at  a  temperature  of  100° 
to  200°  (212  to  392  Fahr.).  The  difference  of  weight 
now  represents  the  proportion  of  moisture  contained  in 
the  specimen.  Raising  it  to  a  red  heat  in  the  same 
capsule,  or  better  still  in  a  platinum  crucible,  we  deter- 
mine by  again  weighing  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid, 
which  might  have  been  left  in  combination  with  the 
lime,  through  imperfect  calcination. 

Then  take  2  grammes  (30.88  grs.)  of  this  material 
and  treat  them  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  gently 
heating  to  complete  the  solution  of  all  soluble  principles. 

By  pouring  ammonia  into  the  solution,  the  alumina, 
which  might  have  been  dissolved  by  the  hydrochloric 
acid,  will  be  precipitated. 

The  alumina  and  silica  are  separated  from  the  solution 
by  filtering,  and  then  weighed  after  desiccation  and 
incineration  of  the  filtering  paper,  the  ash  of  the  paper 
being  subtracted  from  the  weight. 

In  the  filtered  liquid  the  lime  is  precipitated  either  by 
oxalate  of  ammonia  or  by  sulphuric  acid.  In  the  first 
case  by  calcining  we  obtain  caustic  or  quick-lime,  which 
is  weighed.  In  the  second,  the  lime  is  treated  in  the 
condition  of  a  sulphate,  and  after  precipitation  of  the 
magnesia  by  the  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  ifiagnesia, 
is  calcined,  and  the  phosphate  of  magnesia  weighed. 

By  means  of  chemical  equivalents  the  proportions  of 
caustic  lime  and  magnesia  contained  in  the  material 
are  determined. 

The  following  tables  will  give  an  opportunity  of  com- 
paring the  difference  in  composition  of  rich  and  poor 
limes. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  213 
EICH  LIMES. 


Lime 

Magnesia 

Clay  and  sand 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

Chateau-Landon  (Seine  et  Marne)  . 

£70.4 

1.  o 

i .  o 

Saint  Jacques  (Jura) 

95.4 

1.8 

2.8 

Paris  chalk  ..... 

97.2 

0.0 

2.8 

Layneux  (Ain)  .... 

91.6 

1.5 

6.9 

Yichy  (Allier)  [limit  of  rich  limes] 

86.0 

9.0 

5.0 

POOR  LIMES. 


Source. 

Lime 
per  cent. 

Magnesia 
per  cent. 

Clay  and  sand 
per  cent. 

Environs  of  Paris  .... 

78.0 

20.2 

2.0 

Yillefranche  (Aveyron)  . 

60.0 

26.2 

13.0 

including 

some  man- 

ganese. 

As  the  caustic  portion  is  alone  fitted  for  the  uses  of 
alkaline  boiling,  it  should  alone  determine  the  market 
value  of  lime;  the  other  substances  being,  if  not  injuri- 
ous, entirely  inert. 

For  manufacturing  white  paper,  perfectly  white  limes 
should  be  used.  This  quality,  indeed,  is  an  indication 
of  their  pureness,  as  poor  limes  are  of  a  more  or  less 
grayish  color,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  clay  they 
contain. 

§  4.  Chlorometric  Tests. 

We  owe  the  chlorometric  process  generally  followed 
to  Gay-Lussac ;  it  is  based  upon  the  oxidizing  properties 
of  chlorine  salts  in  the  presence  of  water ;  the  water  in 
decomposing  yielding  its  oxygen  to  the  oxidizable  body 
and  the  chlorine  uniting  with  the  hydrogen  to  form 
hydrochloric  acid ;  and  further,  upon  the  instantaneous 


214  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

discoloration  of  a  solution  of  indigo  by  a  slight  excess  of 
chlorine. 

Arsenious  acid  taken  as  the  oxidizable  body  becomes 
converted  into  arsenic  acid  (AsOg  into  AsOg). 

The  test  liquid  composed  of  arsenious  acid,  which  is 
bought  ready  prepared  at  manufactories  of  chemicals,  is 
such  as  to  necessitate  a  volume  of  a  solution  of  chlorine 
equal  to  its  ov^n,  in  order  to  convert  all  the  arsenious 
acid  into  arsenic  acid. 

This  liquid  contains  4.439  grammes  (67.78  grs.  troy) 
of  arsenious  acid  to  the  litre  (1.76  pts.)  of  the  solution. 
It  is  prepared  by  dissolving  that  quantity  of  arsenious 
acid  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  diluted  vs^ith  its  ov^n  vol- 
ume of  water,  and  afterwards  adding  water  enough  to 
complete  the  litre. 

To  perform  the  experiment  take  10  grammes  (154.42 
grs.)  of  the  chloride  to  be  examined  (chloride  of  lime, 
for  instance)  and  wash  them  well  with  water  several 
times  in  a  mortar ;  throw  all  the  water  used  in  this  wash- 
ing into  a  flask  and  add  more  water  to  make  up  the  litre 
(1.76  pt.). 

Pour  10  cubic  centimetres  (0.61  cub.  in.)  of  the  arse- 
nious solution  into  the  vessel  A,  Fig.  8,  pi.  1,  slightly 
colored  by  a  solution  of  indigo.  The  burette  B,  is  then 
filled  with  the  chlorinated  solution.  The  scale  is  grad- 
uated in  such  a  manner  that  a  hundred  divisions  corre- 
spond with  ten  cubic  centimetres  and  the  test  liquid 
poured  in  drop  by  drop  until  the  color  disappears. 

In  order  better  to  determine  the  instant  at  which  the 
discoloration  occurs,  the  vessel  is  placed  upon  a  sheet 
of  paper. 

If  100  divisions  are  used  the  degree  would  be  100 
"  200     "  "  "  "  50 

"  150     "  "  "  "  66.6 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  215 


100  degrees  indicate  that  1  kilog.  (2.679  lbs.  troy) 
of  the  chloride  contains  100  litres  (6102.70  cub.  in.)  or 
318  grammes  (4910.68  grs.)  of  chlorine  gas. 

The  chlorides  of  commerce  contain  about  103  litres 
(6285.79  cub.  in.)  or  327  grammes  (5049.67  grs.)  of 
chloride  to  the  kilog.  (2.679  lbs.). 

To  avoid  the  necessity  of  making  fresh  calculations  for 
each  operation,  tables  have  been  constructed,  giving,  op- 
posite the  degree  of  the  scale,  the  number  of  litres  of 
chlorine  to  the  kilog.  of  the  chloride,  as  well  as  the 
weight  of  the  gas  corresponding  to  the  volume. 

It  is  well,  as  in  the  alkalimetric  tests,  to  perform  two 
or  three  successive  experiments,  in  order  to  insure  the 
accuracy  of  the  first. 

When  once  accustomed  to  testing  in  this  way,  a  per- 
son can  make  several  analyses  of  different  chlorides  in 
an  hour. 


216  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


CHLONOMETRIOAL  TABLE  FOR  1  KILOG.  (2.679  lbs.  troy).i 


® 

Vol.  of  chlorine 

Weight  of 

Vol.  of  chlo- 

Weight of 

gas  in  1  kilog. 

chlorine  for  1 

rine  £ 

?as  in  1 

chlorine  for  1 

o 
m 

(2. 679  lbs.  troy) 

kilog.  (2.679 

kilog.  (2,679 

kilog.  (2.679 

CD 

of  the  chloride. 

lbs.  troy)  of 

Degree 

lbs.  troy)  of 

lbs.  troy)  of 

the  chloride. 

of  the 

the  chloride. 

the  chloride. 

t«-i 
O 

scale. 

igree 

French  English 

Fren  h 

English 

rren  n 

English 

r  ren  n 

Jing. 

Q 

litres. 

cub.  in. 

gram's 

ffrs.  trov 

litres. 

cub.  in. 

gram's 

130 

- 

76.9 

4692 

247 

3814 

104 

96 

5858 

306 

4725 

129 

77.5 

4729 

248 

3829 

103 

97 

5919 

309 

4771 

128 

78.0 

4760 

249 

3844 

102 

98 

5980 

312 

4817 

127 

78.7 

4802 

250 

3860 

101 

99 

6041 

315 

4864 

126 

79.4 

4845 

251 

3876 

100 

100 

6102 

318 

4910 

125 

80.0 

4882 

253 

3906 

99 

101 

6163 

321 

4956 

124 

80.6 

4918 

254 

3922 

98 

102 

6224 

324 

5003 

123 

81.3 

4961 

255 

3937 

97 

103 

6285 

327 

5049 

122 

82.0 

6004 

258 

3984 

96 

104 

6346 

330 

5095 

121 

82.6 

5040 

260 

4015 

95 

105 

6407 

333 

5142 

120 

83.3 

5083 

263 

4061 

94 

106 

6468 

336 

5188 

119 

84.0 

5126 

266 

4107 

93 

107 

6529 

339 

5234 

118 

84.7 

5168 

268 

4138 

92 

109 

6651 

345 

5327 

117 

85.5 

5217 

270 

4169 

91 

110 

6712 

351 

5420 

116 

86.0 

5248 

272 

4200 

90 

111 

6774 

354 

5466 

115 

86.9 

5303 

275 

4246 

89 

112 

6835 

357 

5512 

114 

87.7 

5352 

278 

4292 

88 

114 

6957 

363 

5605 

113 

88.5 

5400 

280 

4323 

87 

115 

7018 

366 

5651 

112 

89.3 

5449 

283 

4370 

86 

116 

7079 

369 

5697 

111 

90.0 

5492 

285 

4401 

85 

118 

7201 

375 

5790 

110 

90.9 

5547 

288 

4447 

84 

119 

7262 

378 

5836 

109 

9L7 

5596 

290 

4478 

83 

120 

7323 

381 

5883 

108 

92.6 

5651 

293 

4524 

82 

122 

7445 

387 

5975 

107 

93.0 

5675 

297 

4586 

81 

123 

7506 

390 

6025 

106 

94.0 

5736 

300 

4638 

80 

125 

7628 

396 

6114 

105 

95.0 

5797 

303 

4678 

79 

127 

7750 

402 

6207 

78 

128 

7811 

406 

6269 

^  Cubic  inches  and  grains  are  used  in  the  above  table  to  avoid  decimals. 
To  find  the  volume  or  weight  of  chlorine  contained  in  a  pound  of  troy  of  a 
specimen  of  chloride  marking  a  given  degree  on  the  French  chlorometer,  find 
the  number  of  cubic  inches  or  grains  set  opposite  the  degree  and  divide  by 
2.679 ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  desired  result.    For  instance,  a  specimen  of 

chloride  of  lime  marks  98°  =  5003  grs.  on  the  scale  for  1  kilog.  122?.=  1867.48 

^  ^  2.679 

grs.  for  the  1  lb.— Tk. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  217 


The  following,  according  to  M.  Payen,  is  the  composi- 
tion of  chloride  of  lime.^ 

1st.  Pulverized,  at  100°,  that  is,  containing  100  volumes 
of  chlorine. 

Composition  by  equivalents: — 

2  CI.  =  886.4 
4  CaO=  1400.0 
4  HO  ==  450.0 

2736.4 

Or  by  hundredths  : — 

Chlorine  .  .  .  .32.39 
Lime  ....  51.16 
Water       ....  16.45 

100.00 

2d.  Composition  of  chloride  of  lime  in  aqueous  solu- 
tion. 

2  CI.  -  886.4 
2  CaO  »  700.0 
4  HO  =  450.0 

2036.4 

Or  by  hundredths : — 

Chlorine    ....  43.52 

Lime        ....  34.37 

Water       ....  22.11 

100.00 

These  figures  clearly  establish  the  fact,  that  the  same 
quantity  of  lime  will  absorb  twice  the  amount  of  chlorine, 
when  the  reaction  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  water. 
There  is  then  advantage  in  preparing  the  liquid  chloride, 
when  it  is  not  necessary  to  transport  it.    The  powdered 


^  "Chimie  Indnstrielle." 


218  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


chloride  may  be  considered  as  retaining  the  chlorine  by 
a  double  equivalent  of  lime,  whereas  in  the  liquid 
chloride,  it  is  the  excess  of  water,  which,  in  effecting 
the  solution,  preserves  the  stability  of  the  compound. 

§  5.  Examination  of  Manganese. 

The  market  value  of  this  substance,  as  applied  to 
paper-making,  depends  upon  the  amount  of  chlorine  it 
is  capable  of  liberating  in  the  preparation  of  chlorine 
gas,  or  the  decolorizing  chlorides.  The  weight  of  chlorine 
disengaged  is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  pure  binox- 
ide  of  manganese  contained  in  the  ore. 

To  ascertain  the  value  of  this  substance,  it  is  sufficient 
to  act  with  it  upon  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
then  determine  the  quantity  of  chlorine  disengaged  and 
collected  in  an  alkaline  solution. 

Precise  analyses  have  allowed  us  to  determine  that 
3.98  grammes  (61.44  grs.  troy)  of  pure  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese disengage  1  litre  (6102.70  cub.  in.)  of  dry  chlorine 
at  278°. 0.  And  under  a  pressure  of  0.76  metres  (30 
inches  of  the  barometer)  or  one  atmosphere. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  the  hundredths  of  a  litre 
of  chlorine  will  represent  the  hundredths  of  available 
manganese  contained  in  the  specimen  of  ore. 

To  perform  the  experiment,  therefore,  we  weigh  3.98 
grammes  (61.44  grs.)  of  the  manganese,  reduced  to  pow- 
der, place  it  in  a  flask,  and  gradually  add  25  cubic  cen- 
timetres (1.52  cub.  inches)  of  hydrochloric  acid  through 
an  S  shaped  tube.  The  flask  is  supplied  with  another 
tube,  through  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  into  the  alka- 
line solution. 

The  mixture  is  heated  gently,  and  the  operation  con- 
tinued, until  the  vapor  of  water  has  driven  off  the  last 
traces  of  chlorine. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  219 


The  resulting  solution  of  chloride  is  poured  into  a  flask, 
bearing  an  index  marking  the  capacity  of  1  litre  (1.76  pt.). 
This  measure  is  completed  by  adding  the  water  used  in 
rinsing  the  flask,  from  which  the  liquid  was  taken. 

The  test  liquid  being  thus  obtained,  the  experiment 
is  concluded,  by  employing  the  ordinary  chlorometric 
test  we  have  already  described. 

If  200  divisions  of  the  burette  are  required  the  degree 
is  50. 

By  means  of  a  proportion  it  is  easily  ascertained  how 
many  litres  of  chlorine  may  be  liberated  by  100  kilog. 
(267.95  lbs.  troy)  of  manganese. 
The  binoxide  of  manganese  is  composed  of — 
Manganese      .       .       .  3.5578 
Oxygen    .       .       .       .  2.0000 

5.5578 

and  5.5578  grammes  (85.82  grs.  troy)  are  capable  of 
liberating  4.4265  grammes  (68.35  grs.),  or  1.396  litres 
(85.19  cubic  inches)  of  chlorine.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  3.98  grammes  (61.46  grs.)  will  produce  1  litre  (61.02 
cub.  in.)  and  1  kilogramme  (15,442  grs.  or  2.6795  lbs. 
troy)  will  furnish  251.23  litres  (15,331  cub.  in.  or  8.8721 
cub.  ft.)  of  the  gas.^ 

§  6.  Chlorometric  Degrees  of  Samples  of  Manganese. 


Manganese, 

pure  crystallized 

100° 

German,  1st  qual.  . 

95° 

(( 

English  . 

88° 

(C 

Burgundy 

68° 

(C 

Cher 

53°.5 

C( 

Mayenne 

52° 

*  According  to  the  above  figures,  1  lb.  troy  of  the  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese would  liberate  3.311104  cubic  feet  of  chlorine.— Tr. 


220 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  value  of  manganese  also  depends  upon  the  pro- 
portion of  hydrochloric  acid  which  it  employs  in  libera- 
ting the  chlorine.  The  binoxide  of  manganese  (MnOa) 
requires  two  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  disengage  one 
part  of  chlorine ;  the  sesquioxide  (MugOs)  three  parts  of 
acid  for  one  of  chlorine  ;  and  finally  the  protoxide  (MnO) 
takes  one  part  of  acid  with  which  it  simply  forms  a 
chloride,  without  any  evolution  of  gas  whatever. 

These  different  reactions  are  expressed  by  the  follow- 
ing chemical  formulae: — 

Mn02+2HC1  =  MnCl+2H0  +  Cl 

MnO  +  HCl  =  MnCl + HO 

Mn  A + 3HC1  =  2MnCl + 3H0  +  CI 

The  carbonates  of  lime  and  baryta,  and  the  oxide  of 
iron,  which  are  found  in  manganese  ores,  also  combine 
with  the  hydrochloric  acid,  causing  a  proportional  loss 
in  the  amount  of  gas  evolved.  The  result  is  the  libera- 
tion of  carbonic  acid,  which,  in  the  manufacture  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime,  forms  a  carbonate  which  the  chlorine  will 
not  decompose.  We  thus  have  a  loss  in  acid,  in  lime, 
and  in  the  degree  of  the  chloride.  M.  Payen,  in  his 
Chimie  Industrielle^  gives  the  following  process  for  de- 
termining the  amount  of  acid  employed. 

To  dissolve  3.98  grammes  (61.46  grs.  troy)  of  the 
binoxide  of  manganese  and  produce  1  litre  (61.02  cub. 
in.)  of  chlorine,  a  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid  equiva- 
lent to  176  acidimetric  degrees  (or  to  8.75  grammes 
[135.10  grs.]  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid)  is  required  ; 
half  of  the  hydrochloric  acid,  or  88°,  forming  chloride 
of  manganese,  and  the  other  half  giving  the  100"^  of 
chlorine.  One  hundredth  of  the  acid  lost  in  the  opera- 
tion is  replaced. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid  required 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  VF  MATERIALS.  221 


by  any  specimen  of  manganese,  treat  3.98  grammes 
(61.46  grs.)  with  25  cubic  centimetres  (1.52  cub.  in.)  of 
acid,  representing  250  acidimetric  degrees  (equivalent  to 
12.5  grammes  [193.02  grs.]  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid)  and  collect  the  chlorine.  Admitting  that  100 
chlorometric  require  173  acidimetric  degrees,  it  is  ascer- 
tained by  neutralizing  with  carbonate  of  soda  (until  the 
carbonate  of  manganese  ceases  to  be  dissolved)  how  much 
of  the  free  acid  remains.  Now,  by  adding  these  two 
quantities  we  determine  how  much  is  needed  to  complete 
the  200  degrees  of  acid  employed,  and  the  deficiency  will 
represent  the  amount  of  loss  occasioned  by  the  specimen 
of  manganese. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  result  of  a  few  ex- 
periments of  this  nature: — 


Hydrochloric  acid. 

M 

<V 

o 

Si  m 

Manganese  employed. 

Chloro- 

Acidime 
equivalen 
chloromei 
degree 

at  ? 

metric 
degrees. 

^11 
B  >  ^ 

Loss. 

Total; 
acidim 
emplo\ 

W    S  PI 

Pure  crystallized  .  . 

100 

176 

73 

1 

250 

German,  first  quality  .  . 

95 

^  16T 

79 

4 

250 

English  

88 

155 

82 

13 

250 

68 

120 

103 

27 

250 

Cher  

53.5 

94 

147 

9 

250 

Mayenne  

52 

92 

127 

31 

250 

This  table  shows  us  that  to  obtain  52°  of  chlorine  with 
manganese  from  Mayenne,  92  +  31  =  123  acidimetric  de- 
grees were  required,  representing  nearly  one  and  a  half 
times  as  much  hydrochloric  acid  as  would  be  needed  to 
obtain  the  same  quantity  of  chlorine  by  using  the  Ger- 
man manganese. 


222  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


§  7.  Antichlorine. 

We  saw,  while  speaking  of  the  washing  of  the  pulp, 
that  in  order  to  remove  the  last  traces  of  chlorine  re- 
tained with  much  energy  by  a  sort  of  special  capillary 
attraction,  it  was  advantageous  to  make  use  of  alkaline 
sulphites,  or  hyposulphites,  which,  by  combining  with 
the  chlorine,  annihilate  its  destructive  effects. 

Antichlorine  is  used  in  England  upon  a  large  scale. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  the  annual  consumption 
amounts  to  200,000  or  250,000  kilog.  (196.85 'to  321.45 
tons). 

To  ascertain  whether  the  pulp  contains  free  chlorine, 
different  reagents  may  be  used,  all,  however,  based  upon 
the  action  of  iodine  upon  starch  when  expelled  by  chlorine 
from  its  ioduretted  compounds. 

The  test  liquid  may  be  prepared  in  several  manners, 
of  which  we  will  here  give  two. 

1st.  Carry  the  following  mixture  to  the  boiling  point: — 

1  part  of  iodide  of  potassium. 

2  parts  of  starch 

3  parts  of  water. 

This  liquid,  preserved  in  a  glass-stoppered  vial,  will 
color  the  pulp  blue,  if  it  contains  chlorine. 
2d.  Boil  for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

Starch       ....  5  parts. 

Fused  chloride  of  zinc        •  20    "  ♦ 

Water       ....  iqOO  " 
When  the  liquid  is  cool,  add 

Iodide  of  zinc    ...  2  " 

To  ascertain  the  presence  of  chlorine  in  the  pulp,  a 
bolus  is  made  of  the  pulp  by  squeezing  out  the  greater 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  223 


part  of  the  water.  The  presence  of  chlorine  is  then 
manifested  by  the  violet  blue  color  of  the  iodide  of  starch. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  using  the  hyposulphite 
instead  of  the  sulphite ;  indeed, 

1  kilog.  (2.679  lbs.  troy)  of  sulphite  of  soda  absorbs 
281  grammes  (4339  grs.)  of  chlorine. 

1  kilog.  (2.679  lbs.)  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  absorbs 
1.144  grammes  (17.666  grs.)  of  chlorine,  or  about  360 
litres  (12.6903  cub.  ft.). 

It  follows  from  this  that  to  counteract  315  litres 
(11.1244  cub.  ft.),  or  1  kilog.  (2.679  lbs.)  of  chlorine  it 
would  take 

3.553  kilog.  (9.464  lbs.)  of  the  sulphite  of  soda. 
0.874  kilog.  (2.341  lbs.)  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Since  the  cost  is  equally  in  favor  of  the  hyposulphite, 
this  compound  should  be  considered  as  the  practical  anti- 
chlorine  for  all  industrial  purposes. 

§  8.  Alums. 

Different  kinds  of  alum  are  met  with  in  commerce. 
1st.  Alum  with  a  potassa  base,  of  which  the  formula  is 
K0,S03 + Al  A3S03 + 24 HO, 
presents  on  analysis  the  following  composition: — 

Potassa    ....  10.82 

Alumina  ....  9.94 

Sulphuric  acid  .       .       ,  33.77 

Water     ....  45.47 

100.00 

2d.  Alum  with  an  ammonia  base,  of  which  the  for- 
mula is 

(NH3HO)  SO3+ Al  A3SO3+ 24HO, 
gives  the  following  analysis: — 


224 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Ammonia        .       .       .  3.89 

Alumina  ....  11.90 

Sulphuric  acid  .       .       .  36.00 

Water     ....  48.21 

100.00 

Alums  contain  iron  in  variable  proportions,  and  the 
presence  of  this  metal  is  injurious  to  the  color  of  pulps 
of  delicate  and  pure  shades.  For  such  purposes  it  is  well 
to  use  the  purified  material,  known  as  refined  alum, 
and  proof  against  the  tests  of  prussiate  of  potassa,  which 
reveals  the  feeblest  traces  of  iron.  It  is  sufiicient  to 
pour  a  few  drops  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  (yellow 
prussiate)  upon  some  crushed  alum,  to  obtain  a  blue 
tinge,  if  the  alum  contains  iron. 

This  method  is  also  employed  for  purifying  alum.": 
Into  a  solution  of  alum  enough  of  the  prussiate  is 
poured  to  precipitate  the  whole  of  the  iron ;  after  allow- 
ing it  to  rest,  the  liquid  is  decanted  by  means  of  a 
syphon,  and  may  be  used  at  once  or  reduced  to  the  form 
of  crystals. 

The  precipitate  of  Prussian  blue  may  be  used  for 
coloring  pulp. 

Instead  of  alum,  sulphate  of  alumina  is  also  used, 
which  is  generally  obtained  by  roasting  together  alumi- 
nous schist  and  iron  pyrites,  and  is  apt  to  contain  con- 
siderable quantities  of  that  metal ;  so  that  it  is  necessary 
to  purify  this  substance  with  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, 
when  it  is  to  be  employed  in  making  fine-colored  papers. 

Although  alum  is  more  costly  than  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina, it  is  preferable  because  less  variable  in  composi- 
tion. The  sulphate  of  alumina,  which  sometimes  con- 
tains an  excess  of  acid  varying  from  two  to  six  per  cent. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  225 


of  the  weight  of  the  sulphate,  gives  rise,  by  this  irregu- 
larity of  composition,  to  considerable  practical  difficulty. 

§  9.  Kaolin. 

Kaolin  is  a  basic  silicate  of  alumina,  produced  by  the 
decomposition  of  feldspathic  rocks.  In  a  crude  condi- 
tion it  contains  sand  of  various  fineness,  of  which  it  must 
be  freed  before  using  in  paper-making. 

This  purification  is  effected  by  successive  washings, 
which  carry  off  the  finest  particles.  This  clay,  although 
smooth  to  the  touch,  when  dry  adheres  roughly  to  the 
tongue. 

We  give  the  composition  of  washed  kaolin,  obtained 
from  Saint- Yrieix: — 


Water  . 

Silica 

Alumina 

Oxide  of  iron  . 

Potassium  and  soda 


12.82 
48.37 
34.95 
1.26 
2.60 


100.00 

To  ascertain  the  pureness  of  kaolin,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  wash  it  and  then  determine  the  quantity  of 
quartz  granules  contained  in  the  specimen. 

It  is  always  prudent  not  to  employ  kaolin  in  the  pre- 
paration of  size,  until  it  has  been  passed  through  the 
meshes  of  a  fine  sieve. 

§  10.  Starch. 

Starch  is  a  mealy  substance,  generally  extracted  from 
potatoes.    The  chemical  formula  for  that  of  commerce 
is  C12H10O10+4HO. 
15 


226  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Starch  contains  variable  proportions  of  water.  What 
is  called  dry  starch,  or  that  containing  four  equivalents, 
has  18  per  cent,  of  its  weight  made  up  of  water.  Placed 
in  a  very  moist  atmosphere  it  may  absorb  10  equivalents, 
or  contain  35  per  cent.,  while  other  starch  which  has 
only  been  drained  contains  45  per  cent,  of  its  own  weight 
of  water. 

It  is,  therefore,  important  to  make  sure  of  the  hygro- 
metric  condition  of  the  starch  by  desiccating  it  at  a  tem- 
perature of  20°  to  30°  (68°  to  86°  Fahr.)  in  a  dry  atmos- 
phere. To  increase  the  weight  of  starch  it  is  mixed 
with  various  matters,  such  as  chalk,  plaster,  sulphate  of 
baryta,  &c.  The  adulteration  is,  however,  easily  recog- 
nized by  incineration.  Starch  burns  up  entirely,  leav- 
ing no  residuum,  whereas,  the  incombustible  mineral 
matters  are  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  porcelain  capsule 
in  which  the  experiment  is  performed. 

§  11.  Coloring  Materials. 

Coloring  materials  can  scarcely  be  otherwise  tested 
than  by  directly  staining  a  certain  fixed  weight  of  pulp. 
A  well-supplied  paper-mill  ought  to  have  a  small  cylin- 
der engine,  holding  about  5  kilog.  (11.02  lbs.  avoir.)  of 
dry  pulp.  The  quality  of  the  coloring  matter  may  then 
be  determined,  by  gradually  increasing  the  proportion 
and  making  several  sheets  of  paper  on  a  small  mould. 
The  results  obtained  in  this  manner  are  then  compared. 
This  method  of  experiment  renders  great  service  when 
a  new  kind  of  paper  is  to  be  made,  and  we  have  no  very 
definite  idea  of  the  amount  of  coloring  matter  necessary 
to  give  the  required  shade. 

M.  Liverkus,  a  manufacturer  of  ultramarine  in  Ger- 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSTS  OF  MATERIALS.  227 


many,  recommends  the  following  very  practical  method, 
applicable,  however,  to  this  substance  alone. 

After  having  poured  3  grammes  (46.32  grs.  troy)  of 
the  ultramarine  to  be  tried  into  a  vessel  containing  270 
grammes  (4168  grs.)  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  alum, 
the  material  is  agitated  so  as  to  cause  all  the  coloring 
matters  to  become  suspended  in  the  liquid. 

After  resting  for  some  time,  say  half  an  hour,  the  mix- 
ture is  again  stirred. 

The  coloring  power  of  the  ultramarine  will  be 
directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  time  required  for 
the  solution  to  become  discolored. 

With  some  blues  the  discoloration  takes  place  at  the  . 
end  of  three  to  six  hours.    In  others,  on  the  contrary, 
no  perceptible  change  in  the  color  can  be  observed  until 
the  second  or  third  day. 

The  aluminous  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  80 
grammes  of  alum  (1135  grs.)  in  1000  grammes  (15,442 
grs.  or  2.679  lbs.  troy)  of  water. 

Ochres  have  a  commercial  value  proportional  to  the 
care  with  which  they  have  been  washed.  It  is  an  easy 
»  matter  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  gravelly  material  they 
contain,  and  the  same  holds  good  in  regard  to  clays, 
which  are  used  in  considerable  quantities  for  manu- 
facturing common  papers  and  boards.  It  is,  however, 
important  not  to  pour  these  matters  into  the  engine,  or 
the  vat,  until  they  have  been  filtered  through  a  long- 
napped  felt,  which  will  retain  the  coarser  particles. 
For  the  finer  coloring  matters,  fine  felts  or  flannels 
are  used. 


228  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


§  12.  Fuel. 

The  analysis  of  combustibles  has  for  its  object  to  de- 
termine the  proportion  of  ash  contained  in  them,  and 
their  calorific  power;  that  is  to  say,  the  number  of 
degrees  of  heat  which  may  be  generated  by  a  given 
quantity  of  fuel. 

The  weight  of  the  ash  may  be  obtained  by  calcining 
2  grammes  (30.88  grs.  troy)  of  the  combustible  to  be 
examined  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  stirring  the  mate- 
rial several  times,  in  order  entirely  to  consume  the 
carbon.  The  analysis  may  be  considered  perfect,  when 
no  difference  can  be  observed  between  two  consecutive 
weighings. 

The  ash  containing  much  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is 
transformed  by  calcination  into  caustic  lime,  a  few  drops 
of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  should  be  added 
and  the  whole  carried  to  a  red  heat. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  are  generally  considered 
sufficient,  as  they  allow  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  the 
commercial  value  of  the  fuel.  It  is,  however,  also  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  have  correct  notions  of  the  num- 
ber of  calorific  degrees  which  can  be  obtained. 

The  examination  with  litharge  is  the  simplest  method, 
and  is  based  upon  the  following  principle. 

The  amounts  of  heat  emitted  by  different  combusti- 
bles are  to  each  other  as  the  respective  amounts  of  oxygen 
absorbed  by  these  combustibles  in  burning. 

It  will  be  sufficient  then  to  compare  the  amounts  of 
oxygen  required  for  the  combustion  of  various  specimens 
of  fuel  with  that  already  determined  for  pure  carbon. 

Take  1  gramme  (15.44  grs.  troy)  of  the  pulverized 
fuel  and  mix  it  with  20  grammes  (308.84  grs.)  of  lith- 
arge.   This  mixture  is  placed  in  a  crucible  and  covered 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS. 


229 


over  with  30  or  40  grammes  (463.23  or  617.69  grs.)  of 
pure  litharge.  The  capacity  of  the  crucible  ought  to  be 
such  that  the  volume  of  the  material  should  not  occupy 
more  than  one-half  in  order  to  allow  for  the  swelling 
which  takes  place.  As  soon  as  the  fusion  is  completed 
the  substance  is  allowed  to  cool  after  having  been  heated 
briskly  for  ten  minutes.  The  crucible  is  then  broken, 
and  the  lump  of  lead  which  is  found  in  it  weighed. 
The  calorific  power  of  the  fuel  is  proportional  to  the 
weight  of  the  lead.  This  hypothesis,  which  is  not  mathe- 
matically exact,  gives  a  sufficient  approximation,  how- 
ever, for  all  practical  purposes. 

It  is  indispensable  to  use  litharge  free  from  minium 
(red  oxide  of  lead). 

Pure  carbon  produces  with  litharge  thirty-four  times  - 
its  own  weight  of  lead,  and  according  to  experiments 
made  by  M.  Depretz  each  part  of  lead  is  equivalent  to 
230  degrees  of  heat. 

Pit  coal  is  the  fuel  generally  employed  in  France. 
The  calorific  power  of  this  material  is  somewhat  varia- 
ble according  to  its  source  and  the  proportion  of  ash  it 
contains. 

We  give,  for  the  sake  of  information,  the  following 
results  of  analyses. 


230 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


ANALYSES. 


Source. 

Ash 
per  cent. 

Calorific 
power. 

Hartley  (England)  

1..50 

6781 

Anthracite  (Wales)  ..... 

1.60 

'7406 

XUrsLUUlllClUA.  ... 

2.16 

I29t 

l\/T/-vna 

IVlOuS 

^jjeigiuui ) 

ijrranu  ijuioaoii        .  . 

3.44 

t234 

XldUL-J:  leuu.    .         .  . 

o.to 

6920 

JJCliC  V  uc             •             •  . 

3.05 

•7268 

X  I  leil  Xvaaili  ... 

.  1.55 

•7377 

vyuaiieroi  •< 

,   ijeduiei  .... 

1.48 

7358 

Saas-les-Moulins  . 

1.80 

7315 

Yeine  Toussaint 

3.10 

7493 

Yalenciennes  - 

"  Rosifere 
'*    Perier  . 

5.t0 
2.80 

7278 
7347 

Fosse  reussite 

2.50 

7200 

(  Bully  .... 

3.00 

7230 

Pas-de-Calais  - 

Nouix  .... 

2.40 

7365 

Courrieres 

8.60 

7396 

Kives-de-Gier  •< 

Henry  .... 

2  96 

7831 

Cimetiere 

3.5t 

7307 

Oouzon  .... 

4.32 

7441 

Alais  (Rochelle)  ...... 

1.41 

7881 

Blanzy 

2.28 

6626 

Comraentry  " 

0.24 

7236 

Lignite  de  Dax 

4.99 

6225 

"     (Bouches-de-Rhone)     .  . 

13.44 

5395 

In  certain  localities  turf  is  burned,  the  calorific  power 
of  which  varies  according  to  its  state  of  dryness.  It  is 
generally  estimated  at  half  that  of  coal. 


§  13.  Examination  or  Papers. 

Gelatine-sized  papers  are  usually  recognizable  by  their 
odor;  this  characteristic  is  not,  however,  sufficient  for 
some  of  those  sized  in  this  manner  but  made  by  machi- 
nery. 

By  incineration  they  are  found  to  burn  badly,  leaving 
a  very  black  carbonaceous  deposit;  whereas  paper  sized 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  231 


with  resin  in  the  pulp  yields  rather  a  grayish  residuum. 
If  the  results  obtained  are  uncertain,  we  must  then  have 
recourse  to  an  elementary  analysis.  Gelatine  will  be 
indicated  by  the  amount  of  nitrogen  collected. 

As  resinous-sized  papers  always  contain  starch  in 
greater  or  less  quantities,  a  blue  color  is  obtained  when 
they  are  subjected  to  the  vapor  of  iodine. 

The  incombustible  papers  employed  in  gunnery  being 
composed  of  intestines,  emit  ammoniacal  vapors  when 
subjected  to  calcination  in  a  test-tube,  and  become 
crisp  when  boiled  with  acetic  acid. 

Generally  it  is  thought  sufficient  to  determine  the 
amount  of  mineral  matters  which  the  paper  contains. 
All  that  is  required,  then,  is  to  incinerate  10  grammes 
(154.42  grs.  troy)  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  and  to  weigh 
the  remainder  after  calcination. 

Paper  made  exclusively  of  rags  yields  a  residuum  of 
a  third  to  a  half  or  one  per  cent,  at  most,  proceeding 
from  the  ash  of  the  textile  fibres,  and  the  small  amount 
of  mineral  matters  introduced  by  the  waters. 

By  deducting  a  hundredth  of  the  weight  of  the  resi- 
duum, the  weight  of  the  additional  matters  is  obtained. 

The  substances  generally  employed  are — 

Kaolin. 

Chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime. 
Sulphate  of  lime. 
Sulphate^*  of  baryta. 
Clays. 
Ochres. 

The  examination  of  these  different  substances  necessi- 
tates a  complete  analysis,  which  is  more  in  the  line  of 
the  chemist  than  the  manufacturer  of  paper. 

We  will  give,  as  the  course  to  be  pursued,  the  remark- 


232  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


able  report  of  M.  Braconnot,  based  upon  experiments 
made  by  him  to  determine  the  nature  of  substances  com- 
posing the  size  used  in  pulps,  or  resinous  sizing. 

Chemical  Examination  of  Paper  Sized  in  the  Pulp. 

"I  subjected  it  to  the  following  tests:  Boiled  with 
pure  water,  it  yielded  a  liquid  which  restored  the  blue 
color  to  red  litmus  paper,  thus  revealing  the  presence  of 
an  alkali.  An  infusion  of  nutgalls  scarcely  affected  its 
transparency,  so  that  it  did  not  contain  gelatine ;  but 
iodine  produced  a  very  intense  blue  color,  indicating  that 
starch  formed  a  part  of  the  composition. 

"Twelve  grammes  (186.28  grs.  troy)  of  the  same  pa- 
per were  boiled. for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  w^ater 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  liquid  was  ex- 
pressed through  a  piece  of  fine  linen  and  the  pulp  well 
washed  with  boiling  water.  When  dried  it  weighed 
only  11.16  grammes  (172.31  grs.).  The  acidulated  liquid 
was  united  with  the  water  used  in  washing  the  pulp,  and 
saturated  with  carbonate  of  lime.  After  being  filtered 
it  was  partially  evaporated,  in  order  to  remove  the  greater 
part  of  the  resulting  sulphate  of  lime ;  when  evaporated 
almost  to  dryness,  a  yellow  residuum  was  obtained,  hav- 
ing a  gummy  appearance,  and  weighing  0.67  grammes 
(10.33  grs.).  This  substance,  when  heated  in  a  platinum 
crucible,  became  swollen,  emitted  an  odor  of  burnt  bread, 
and  gave  an  ash  containing  sulphate  pf  lime  with  the 
sulphate  of  a  fixed  alkali,  which  I  did  not  determine. 

"  The  solution  in  water  of  this  apparently  gummy 
substance  was  only  feebly  precipitated  by  an  infusion  of 
galls ;  but  assumed  a  beautiful  dark  violet  color  when 
treated  with  iodine.  This  material  was,  therefore,  only 
slightly  modified  starch. 

"The  11.16  grammes  (172.31  grs.)  of  paper  which 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  233 


had  resisted  the  action  of  the  boiling  water  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  were  treated  with  a  weak  solution 
of  potassa.  The  expressed  liquid,  while  boiling,  was  of 
a  transparent  yellowish  color,  but  became  somewhat  tur- 
bid on  cooling,  and  gave  a  lather  like  soapsuds. 

"  A  small  quantity  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  was  poured 
into  this  liquid  to  neutralize  the  potassa,  when  it  became 
very  milky  and  deposited  a  flaky  matter,  which  did  not 
redissolve  by  heat.  This  weighed  about  0.2  grammes 
(3.08  grs.)  after  evaporation  in  a  capsule  smeared  with 
grease.  The  capsule,  as  well  as  the  flaky  matter,  was 
washed  with  alcohol,  which  assumed  a  brownish  color, 
and  became  charged  with  fatty  matter. 

"  The  residuum,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  was  composed 
to  a  great  degree  of  starch  which  had  escaped  the  action 
of  the  boiling  acidulated  water.  The  liquid,  separated 
from  the  0.2  grammes  (3.08  grs.)  of  flaky  matter  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  also  contained  starch ;  for  when  evaporated 
in  order  to  crystallize  the  greater  part  of  the  sulphate  of 
potassa,  it  yielded  a  yellowish  mother-water,  which  gave 
a  deep  blue  color  with  iodine,  and  a  brownish  sediment 
was  formed  still  containing  starch.  When  distilled  in  a 
test-tube  it  gave  an  alkaline  liquid  which  turned  red 
litmus  paper  blue. 

"  This  appears  to  be  due  to  the  gluten  contained  in 
the  flour  of  cereals  used  to  size  the  paper  under  consider- 
ation. 

"  I  return  to  the  brownish  alcoholic  solution  resulting 
from  washing  the  flaky  matter.  After  evaporation  there 
remained  0.1  gramme  (1.54  grs.)  of  a  fatty  and  some- 
what pitchy  substance,  of  a  yellowish-brown  color,  and 
having  about  the  consistency  of  lard.  Its  combination 
with  potassa  was  very  highly  colored  and  had  a  bitter 
taste,  which  led  me  to  suspect  the  presence  of  a  resin. 


234  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

To  ascertain  whether  my  suspicion  was  correct,  I  treated 
it  with  water  and  a  small  quantity  of  magnesia  to 
neutralize  the  fatty  acids,  and  then  subjected  the  residue 
to  the  action  of  boiling  alcohol,  which,  on  evaporation, 
left  behind  a  slight  coating  of  varnish,  easily  recognized 
as  a  resin. 

"  Five  grammes  (77.20  grs.)  of  paper  yielded  when 
burnt  0.06  grammes  (0.92  grs.)  of  a  very  ferruginous  ash, 
which  also  contained  a  noticeable  quantity  of  manganese ; 
for  when  melted  with  soda  in  the  flame  of  a  blowpipe, 
it  gave  a  beautiful  blue  glass.  This  ash  did  not  effer- 
vesce with  acids.  When  heated  to  redness  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  the  residuum  treated  with  water,  it  had  very 
little  taste  at  the  time  of  mixture,  but  at  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours  the  liquor  had  acquired  a  very  distinct 
astringent  taste,  and  with  ammonia  produced  a  gelatinous 
precipitate  of  alumina ;  from  which  it  follows  that  alum 
had  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  paper  pulp." 

The  author  then  gives  the  composition  of  vegetable 
size,^  such  as  he  deduces  it  from  his  experiments,  which 
are  remarkable  when  we  consider  that  they  date  from 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

A  great  many  machine-made  papers  become  yellow, 
or  present  spots  of  a  yellow  rust  color.  These  spots  are 
due  to  the  action  of  the  chlorine  contained  in  the  pulp 
upon  the  iron  of  the  drying  cylinders.  Indeed  the  felts 
soon  become  spotted  with  the  same  color  at  difi'erent 
points,  and  sometimes  over  their  whole  surface.  It  may 
be  shown  that  these  spots  are  really  due  to  an  oxide  of 
iron,  by  employing  the  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  which 
produces  a  red  color,  growing  deeper  as  the  proportion 
of  the  peroxide  of  iron  is  increased. 


*  See  p.  180. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  235 


By  digesting  the  leaves  of  paper  to  be  tested  in  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  the  paper  becomes  white  and  the  pre- 
sence of  peroxide  of  iron  is  detected  in  the  solution. 

MM.  Fordas  and  Gelis  have  published  a  paper  upon 
this  subject  in  the  Journal  de  Librairie,  from  which 
we  extract  what  follows : — 

"  On  leaving  the  rag  engines  the  wet  pulp  is  conveyed 
into  a  wooden  vat  and  thence  to  the  various  apparatus, 
which  constitute  the  paper-machine,  and  whose  objects 
are  the  formation  and  drying  of  the  paper,  and  its  divi- 
sion into  leaves. 

"  Perfectly  washed  pulp  would  be  in  no  way  changed 
during  these  different  operations ;  for  the  vapors  gener- 
ated being  only  those  of  water  could  not,  by  acting  on 
the  different  materials  of  which  the  apparatus  is  com- 
posed, give  rise  to  any  soluble  compound,  capable  of 
becoming  incorporated  with  the  leaf  during  its  manu- 
facture. 

"  But  instead  of  supposing  such  a  case,  which  is  never 
practically  attained,  an  incompletely  washed  pulp  is 
used ;  a  large  part  of  the  chlorine  it  contains  will,  it  is 
true,  be  carried  off  by  the  excess  of  liquid  during  the 
« first  stages  of  the  operation ;  but  there  will  always  re- 
main a  portion,  which  will  be  liberated  with  the  vapor 
of  water  at  the  time  of  drying,  attack  the  cast-iron 
rollers,  dissolve  their  surface,  and  form  with  them  a 
minimum  chloride  of  iron,  with  which  the  felts  support- 
ing the  leaves  will  become  impregnated,  and  which  from 
them  will  be  introduced  into  the  substance  of  the  pulp 
itself 

"  This  impregnation  of  the  felts  with  a  salt  of  iron  can- 
not be  denied.  These  felts  are  always  spotted  with  rust, 
and  the  yellow  color  begins  to  be  perceptible  during  the 
first  days  they  are  in  use.    The  rust  actually  becomes 


236  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


combined  with  the  tissue,  and  is  the  result  of  a  maximum 
basic  salt  of  iron,  produced  by  the  action  of  the  air  upon 
the  minimum  salt  we  have  before  mentioned. 

"  This  salt  cannot  possibly  affect  the  paper ;  it  is  in- 
soluble and  combined ;  but  it  is  the  free  and  soluble  part 
which  exists  upon  the  surface  of  the  cylinders,  or  in  the 
substance  of  the  felts. 

"  We  will  admit  that  the  ferruginous  compound  enters 
the  paper  in  a  soluble  condition,  and  at  the  minimum  of 
oxidation,  because  this  fact  seems  to  us  to  be  proved  by 
the  absence  of  color  in  the  paper  at  the  time  of  manu- 
facture. 

"  The  complete  state  of  dryness  of  the  paper  maintains 
the  salt  of  iron  for  some  time  at  a  minimum,  and  con- 
sequently in  a  colorless  condition ;  but  very  soon  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  assisted  by  atmospheric  moisture,  re- 
acts upon  this  compound,  and,  by  bringing  it  to  a  maxi- 
mum degree  of  oxidation,  colors  it. 

"  This  simple  reaction  perfectly  explains  the  yellow, 
and  often  nankin  color  which  these  ferruginous  papers 
assume.  It  also  explains  an  observation  made  to  us  by 
a  printer,  namely,  that  this  color  is  frequently  produced 
when  the  paper  is  wetted  for  printing  or  accidentally.  ^ 

"  As  for  the  round  spots,  which  have  more  particularly 
engaged  the  attention  of  manufacturers,  they  may  be 
quite  as  easily  explained.  We  attribute  them  to  a  phe- 
nomenon of  crystallization. 

"They  are  formed  through  the  tendency,  possessed  to 
a  certain  degree  by  the  molecules  of  all  bodies,  to  arrange 
themselves  in  groups  when  they  are  disseminated  through- 
out a  permeable  medium.  If  the  spots  of  which  we  are 
speaking  are  closely  observed,  it  will  be  remarked  that 
each  one  of  them  incloses  near  its  middle  an  asperity, 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS. 


237 


or  hard  body,  which  seems  to  have  served  as  a  centre  of 
attraction. 

"As  a  result  of  the  condition  of  alternate  dryness  and 
moisture,  to  which  the  porous  and  hygrometric  material 
of  paper  is  exposed,  an  insensible  displacement  occurs. 
The  molecules  of  the  salt  of  iron  arrange  themselves 
around  the  most  compact  parts  of  the  paper  pulp,  as  a 
salt  in  concentrated  solution  is  deposited  around  the 
glass  rods  or  strings  suspended  in  it;  or,  to  make  use  of 
a  comparison,  which  seems  to  us  more  exact,  these  ferru- 
ginous molecules  group  themselves  in  the  sheet  of  paper, 
as  we  find  them  doing  in  wet  soils  to  form  those  globules 
of  oxide  of  iron,  or  radiated  pyrites,  so  abundant  in  all 
looalities  where  ochrous  earths  are  buried  in  organic  de- 
posits. 

"  Frequently  when  the  displacement  we  have  just  ex- 
plained does  not  occur  until  after  printing,  it  is  the 
printed  letters  themselves  which  become  the  centres  of 
attraction,  so  that  the  iron  becomes  fixed  in  preference 
upon  the  printed  portion  of  the  paper,  which  it  deeply 
stains,  while  the  margins  appear  relatively  colorless." 

To  save  the  reader  the  trouble  of  having  to  look  them 
out  in  chemical  works,  we  give  an  enumeration  of  several 
elementary  bodies,  with  their  combining  equivalents  and 
densities,  as  indispensable  information  in  analytical  cal- 
culations : — 


238  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Names. 

Symbols. 

Equivalents. 

Densities. 

Oxygen  . 

0. 

100. 

1.10563  1 

'he  atmo- 
here  take 
IS  a  unit. 

Hydrogen 

H. 

12.5 

0.0692 

Nitrogen  .    "  , 

N. 

n5. 

0.9713 

Chlorine  . 

CI. 

443.2 

2.44 

Sulphur  . 

s. 

200. 

2.07 

Iodine.  . 

I. 

1578.2 

4.95 

Silicium  . 

Si. 

266.7 

4.95 

Phosphorus 

P. 

400. 

1.83 

Carbon 

C. 

75. 

1.60  to  35.0 

Potassium 

K. 

490. 

0.865 

Sodium  . 

m. 

287.2 

0.97 

Barium  . 

Ba. 

858.4 

0.97 

rj 
CS 

Calcium  . 

Ca. 

250. 

0.97 

M 

d 

Magnesium 

Mg. 

157.3 

0.97 

Aluminium 

Al. 

171. 

0.97 

•S 

Manganese 

Mn. 

344.7 

8.0 

fl 

Iron 

Fe. 

350. 

7.7  to  7.9 

a> 

Chromium 

Cr. 

328. 

6.0 

Zinc 

Zn. 

406. 

6.86  to  7.2 

Tin  . 

Sn. 

735.3 

7.29 

Lead 

PI. 

1294.5 

11.445 

Copper  . 

Cu. 

395. 

8.78  to  8.96 

§  14.  Materials  of  a  Laboratory. 

1st.  Instruments  and  Apparatus, 

Microscope. 
Hand  lens. 

Scales  with  stand,  weighing  as  low  as  0.01 

grammes  (0.154  grain  troy). 
Blowpipe. 
Stationary  furnace. 
Hand 

Porcelain  capsules  of  different  diameters. 
Platinum  crucible  and  accessories. 
Porcelain  mortar. 
Spirit  lamp. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS.  239 


Instrument  for  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity 
of  salts. 

Thermometers,  graduated  upon  glass. 
Earthen  crucibles. 
Test-tubes,  with  stand. 
Graduated  burettes. 
Flasks. 

Bottles  with  one,  two,  or  three  necks. 
Glass  tubes,  straight. 
"       "  curved. 

"       "     S  shaped,  with  funnel  end. 
Glass  funnels. 
Earthen  " 

India-rubber  pipe  for  joints. 
Wooden  tongs  and  holders. 
Alkalimetric  apparatus. 
Chlorometric  " 
Acidimetric  " 
Hydrotimetric  " 
Filtering  paper. 

2d,  Reagents, 

Blue  test-paper. 
Red  " 

Hydrochloric  acid. 

Sulphuric  " 

Nitric  " 

Acetic  " 

Ammonia. 

Iodine. 

Potassa. 

Soda. 

Lime. 

Oxalate  of  ammonia. 


240  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


Carbonate  of  soda. 
Carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Phosphate  of  soda. 
Alum. 

Protochloride  of  tin. 

Acetate  of  lead. 

Ferrocyanide  of  potassium. 

Sulphocyanide  of  potassium. 

Sulphate  of  iron. 

Sulphate  of  copper. 

Litharge. 

Tannin. 

Starch. 

Alcohol. 

Ether. 

Arsenious  acid  test  liquid. 
Sulphuric  acid    "  " 
Hydrotimetric    "  " 
Borax. 

Salts  of  phosphorus. 
Chromate  of  potassa. 
Iodide  of  potassium. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


241 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

woeking  stock  of  a  paper-mill. 
§  1.  Motive  Power. 

The  motive  powers  employed  are  the  water-wheel  and 
steam-engine.  We  only  mention,  by  way  of  reminiscence, 
the  Dutch  wind-mills  which  used  to  set  in  motion  the 
beating  mallets  and  rollers  of  old-fashioned  paper-mills. 

Among  water  wheels  we  shall  assign  the  first  place  to 
turbine  wheels,  which,  by  their  great  initial  velocity, 
very  much  simplify  the  transmision  of  motion.  Another 
advantage  not  less  desirable  in  certain  countries  is,  that 
turning  under  water,  they  are  almost  entirely  protected 
from  frost. 

M.  Planche  says,  in  speaking  of  the  turbine  wheel  as 
the  motive  power  of  a  paper-mill: — 

1st.  It  adapts  itself  in  the  best  possible  manner  to  the 
use  of  belts  for  the  transmission  of  motion  to  the  crush- 
ing cylinders,  thereby  allowing  the  suppression  of  a  great 
number  of  cog-wheels. 

2d.  It  allows  the  cylinders  to  be  placed  at  such  a  height, 
such  a  distance,  and  in  such  a  position  as  convenience 
requires. 

3d.  It  gives  great  facility  for  setting  in  motion  and 
stopping  at  will,  one  or  several  cylinders  without  acting 
'  on  the  others  of  the  engine,  which  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  two  pullies  on  each  spindle  of  the  cylinder,  one 
fixed  and  the  other  movable.  This  arrangement  pro- 
motes economy  of  time. 
16 


242  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


4th.  It  is  finally  to  be  considered  that  the  use  of  belts 
renders  impossible  the  breakages  which  otherwise  occur 
and  often  disable  such  engines  as  are  moved  by  pinions. 

We  ought  to  admit  that  the  three  last  reasons  appear 
to  us  erroneous.  Does  not  the  ordinary  water-wheel  or 
steam-engine  allow  the  use  of  belts  ]  There  is  simply  a 
suppression  of  one  or  two  cog-wheels  multiplying  the 
velocity. 

Whatever  may  be  the  motive  power  employed,  the 
movement  being  communicated  to  the  main  axle,  no- 
thing prevents  our  attaching  belts  and  pulleys,  as  in  the 
case  of  turbine  wheels. 

As  far  as  relates  to  accidents,  at  the  time  we  are  writ- 
ing these  lines,  we  learn  that  the  main  pinion  of  a  tur- 
bine, acting  as  a  fly-wheel,  has  just  broken,  and  will 
occasion  a  month's  stoppage  in  the  work  of  a  paper-mill. 

At  another  place  a  cylinder,  moved  by  a  belt,  was 
nearly  thrown  out  of  the  engine.  In  speaking  of  cylin- 
ders we  shall  see  the  advantage  presented  by  the  use  of 
belts  to  transmit  power ;  but  this  question  is  entirely  a 
special  one  and  has  no  connection  with  the  motive  power 
in  itself. 

M.  Planche  has  confounded  the  different  parts  of  all 
machinery,  which  may  be  classed  under  these  heads : — 

1st.  The  motive  power. 

2d.  The  transmission  of  motion. 

3d.  The  instruments  or  machine-tools. 

The  advantages  of  a  turbine  may  be  thus  enume- 
rated:— 

1st.  Great  initial  velocity.  ' 
2d.  Superior  and  constant  returns  at  all  seasons. 
3d.  Economy  of  space. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


243 


4th.  Simplified  transmission  of  motion  to  machinery 
requiring  great  velocity. 

5th.  The  employment  of  high  water-falls  with  but  a 
small  supply  of  water. 

Nevertheless,  in  a  district  where  there  are  no  machine 
shops,  in  sites  where  the  position  would  present  serious 
difficulties,  in  localities  where  the  falls  are  not  high,  and 
the  supply  of  water  is  abundant,  we  advise  the  use  of  an 
ordinary  water-wheel. 

The  application  of  steam  as  the  principal  motive  power 
can  only  be  suited  to  countries  where  fuel  is  very  abun- 
dant, and  where  the  greater  part  of  the  water  has  to  be 
kept  for  washing  and  other  requirements  of  the  mill. 

In  most  paper-mills,  however,  a  steam-engine  is  estab- 
lished to  supply  the  deficiency  of  water  wheels  in  times 
of  drought  or  repairs. 

In  this  case  an  engine  of  variable  power  should  be 
employed,  so  as  to  use  only  an  amount  of  steam  propor- 
tional to  the  additional  motive  force  required. 

§  2.  Eag  Cutters. 

New  instruments  are  being  invented  every  day  for  cut- 
ting rags.    Those  most  in  use  are  the  following : — 

1st.  A  cast-iron  cylinder  with  two  to  four  blades  of 
steel  cutting  like  shears,  with  a  fixed  blade  solidly 
mounted.  The  velocity  of  this  cylinder  is  from  80  to  125 
revolutions  a  minute. 

The  rags  are  fed  to  it  by  an  endless  web  and  grooved 
rollers.  It  is  estimated  that  it  requires  a  one-horse 
power  engine  to  cut  800  kilog.  (1763  lbs.  avoird.)  in  a 
day.  This  return,  however,  is  very  variable,  and  de- 
pends much  upon  the  nature  of  the  rags. 

This  apparatus  off'ers  the  inconvenience  of  violently 


244  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


shaking  its  foundations.  We  must,  however,  admit  that 
this  fault  may  be  found  with  nearly  all  of  them.  The 
mounting  is  not  sufficiently  solid ;  the  foundations  are 
too  light  to  extinguish  the  greater  part  of  the  vibrations 
and  deaden  the  effect  of  the  shaking. 

2d.  Modification  of  the  preceding :  the  cast  iron  cylin- 
der about  0.60  metres  (23.62  in.)  long  by  the  same  in 
diameter,  carries  six  blades  fixed  in  an  oblique  direction 
and  only  occupying  the  third  of  the  length,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  six  blades  are  only  equal  to  two  whole  ones. 
This  machine  requires  less  power,  and  its  vibrations  are 
less  perceptible  than  the  former. 

3d.  A  vertical  iron  plate  0.05  metres  (1.96  in.)  in 
thickness  bearing  four  blades  about  0.25  metres  (9.84 
in.)  long  and  forming  shears  with  a  fixed  blade  set  in  the 
mounting.  This  machine  is  also  fed  by  means  of  an 
endless  web. 

4th.  Cylinders  in  form  of  a  rolling  engine,  of  which 
the  upper  is  provided  with  10  to  15  circular  blades  sepa- 
rated by  iron  washers.  ^ 

5th.  A  simple  cutter  constituted  on  the  principle  of 
the  guillotine,  the  upper  blade  of  which  receives  an  osci- 
lating  motion  by  means  of  an  eccentric. 

Behind  this  blade  is  a  plate  of  iron  which  regulates 
the  length  of  the  cut  rags ;  by  fixing  it  nearer  or  farther 
off  the  rags  may  be  cut  long  or  short.  This  machine  is 
low  in  price,  and  adapted  to  small  paper-mills.  Its 
want  of  velocity  reduces  the  returns.  It  is  advantage- 
ously employed  for  cutting  ropes,  pack-cloths,  and  coarse 
gray  rags,  which  would  otherwise  require  the  work  of 
special  hands. 

White  and  fine  rags  in  general  ought  not  to  be  cut 
by  machinery  except  casually;  as  the  perfection  of  hand 
work  cannot  be  obtained  by  it. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


245 


§  3.  Dusters. 

The  most  simple  apparatus  consists  of  a  truncated  cone 
revolving  upon  the  axis  of  the  great  circle,  and  upon 
two  rollers  running  in  a  groove  round  the  crown  of  the 
small  circle.  This  is  covered  with  a  network  of  iron. 
The  inner  sides  are  armed  with  iron  teeth  arranged  in  a 
spiral,  which  force  the  rags  out  by  the  end  opposite  that 
of  entrance.  This  kind  of  duster  will  only  answer  for 
fine  clean  and  half  clean  rags. 

To  render  the  action  of  this  instrument  more  ener- 
getic, a  tree  is  placed  within,  bearing  iron  spokes  ar- 
ranged in  a  spiral.  These  spokes  force  the  rags  against 
the  wire-netting,  which  revolves  in  an  opposite  direction 
from  that  of  the  rotation  of  the  tree.  This  contrivance 
for  dusting,  of  a  conical  or  cylindrical  form,  is  preferable 
for  foul  and  soiled  rags,  hems,  seams,  etc.  It  naturally 
requires  more  power  than  the  first  mentioned  machine. 

When  the  duster  is  cylindrical,  it  is  given  an  inclina- 
tion of  from  25°  to  40°;  and  a  diameter  of  0.90  to  1.10 
metres  (2.95  to  3.60  ft.)  by  4.50  to  5.0  metres  (14.76  to 
16.40  ft.)  in  length. 

The  wolf  (loup  briseur)  serves  to  divide  and  clean  the 
wastings  of  flax,  hemp,  oakum,  coarse  rags  containing 
straw,  or  hemp  and  ropes.  It  is  constructed  upon  the 
same  principle  as  the  preceding  apparatus,  and  off'ers  a 
resistance  proportioned  to  the  work  it  has  to  do.  The 
iron  axis  armed  with  spokes  is  alone  movable  and  the 
impurities  fall  through  an  iron  grating. 

The  loss  of  material  caused  by  this  engine  is  at  times 
so  considerable  that  it  has  been  discontinued  in  some 
paper-mills.  It  nevertheless  facilitates  the  operation  of 
boiling,  and  various  other  manipulations  by  disintegrat- 
ing the  rag  filaments,  and  rendering  them  more  suscep- 


246 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


tible  to  the  action  of  the  lyes.  These  rags  are  softer  and 
more  easily  reduced  to  pulp.  The  machine  requires 
great  power,  which  many  mills  are  not  able  to  bestow. 

Whatever  may  be  the  style  of  duster  employed,  it  is 
indispensable  that  it  should  be  covered  over  with  a  close 
wooden  cage  in  order  to  retain  the  dust  and  other  im- 
purities which,  mixed  with  the  rag  fibres,  are  called 
wastings  of  the  duster.  It  should  be  understood  that 
as  the  quality  of  these  wastings  varies  with  the  nature 
of  the  rags,  it  is  important  not  to  dust  on  the  same  day 
rags  that  differ  much  in  quality,  so  that  the  refuse  may 
be  collected  only  once  a  day. 

§  4.  Washing  Apparatus. 

To  wash  the  rags  before  boiling,  we  may  use  with 
advantage  a  large  wooden  vat  analogous  to  the  bleach- 
ing cisterns,  furnished  with  a  washing  drum  and  a  large 
sand  trap..  The  light  parts,  such  as  feathers,  etc.,  are 
carried  along  with  a  current  of  water  which  is  poured 
out  through  a  strainer  covered  with  wire  gauze,  and 
placed  at  the  upper  part  of  the  vat.  The  water,  running 
in  at  the  lower  part,  produces  by  its  pressure  a  constant 
agitation  of  the  rags  in  the  liquid. 

With  a  single  vat  of  this  kind  we  can  easily  cleanse 
from  2,000  to  2,400  kilog.  (1,968  to  2,362  tons)  of  rags 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

.For  the  same  purpose  a  sort  of  duster  or  washing  drum 
is  used  revolving  in  a  trough  filled  with  water.  In  all 
cases  it  is  well  to  conduct  all  the  water,  after  washing, 
into  cisterns  where  the  filamentous  parts  which  have 
been  carried  ofi"  may  be  recovered. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


247 


§  5.  Boiling  Apparatus. 

The  old  wooden  vats  with  double  bottoms  and  furnished 
with  a  sheet  iron  cover,  are  scarcely  ever  employed  since 
the  invention  of  steam  rotating  boilers.  We  give,  how- 
ever, a  drawing  of  an  apparatus  of  that  nature,  easily  set 
up,  and  which  may  in  certain  cases  be  of  advantage. 
The  water  is  sent  up  through  the  central  pipe  by  the 
pressure  of  steam  and  runs  over  upon  the  rags. 

We  have  seen,  in  speaking  of  boiling,  that  soluble  lyes 
are  preferable  to  lime,  when  these  boilers  are  used. 

The  invention  of  rotating  boilers  belongs  to  an  Eng- 
lish machinist,  Mr.  Bryan  Donkin.  Those  met  with  in 
France  are  known  under  the  name  of  Blanche  and  Rieder 
boilers ;  but  they  only  differ  from  the  first  in  some  modi- 
fications of  detail. 

This  kind  of  boiler  is  at  the  present  day  an  indispen- 
sable apparatus  in  a  paper-mill  where  common  rags, 
thirds,  ropes,  etc.,  are  used.  It  might  possibly  be  dis- 
pensed with  when  exclusively  fine  white  rags  are  worked ; 
but  this  would  be  a  poor  economy,  as  the  small  increase 
in  expense  necessitated  by  setting  up  the  machine  is 
largely  compensated  by  the  great  advantage  it  procures, 
as  much  in  lessening  labor  as  by  utilizing  more  com- 
pletely the  alkaline  principles  necessary  for  bleaching. 


§  6.  Washing  and  Beating  Engines. 

The  machines  adopted  are  very  numerous,  as  well  as 
the  materials  employed  in  their  construction. 

1st.  The  cistern  may  be  of  wood. 

"         "         "       cast  iron. 
"        "        "       sheet  iron. 


248  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  cistern  may  be  of  cast  iron  with  wooden  bot- 
toms. 

"        "         "       brick  and  mortar. 
The  cylinder  may  be  of  wood. 

"       "       "       cast  iron. 
"       "       "       cast  iron  and  wood. 
The  blades  of  the  cylinder  may  be  of  steel, 
u  u  u  u  bronze. 

plate        "  steel. 
"  "  "  "  bronze. 

There  are  cylinders  with  bronze  blades  and  plates. 
There  are  cylinders  with  steel  blades  and  bronze  plates. 
There  are  cylinders  with  steel  blades  and  plates. 
The  blades  are  arranged  either  singly,  doubly,  or  by 
threes. 

The  arrangement  by  twos  is  generally  adopted  for  the 
washing  and  by  threes  for  the  beating  engine. 

For  the  manufacture  of  fine  papers  it  is  better  to  em- 
ploy a  cistern  made  of  cast  iron,  and  cylinders  with  steel 
blades  and  bronze  plates,  as  the  rags  are  less  briskly  cut 
and  give  a  richer  pulp. 

The  inconvenience  of  bronze  plates  is  that  they  are 
very  expensive  and  need  frequent  repairs. 

Cisterns  of  wood  and  cemented  brick  are  economical. 
They  are  suitable  for  coarse  paper  or  for  temporary  use. 

The  cast  iron  cisterns,  though  we  know  of  one,  are 
very  rare.  They  are  light  and  therefore  suitable  for  lo- 
calities where  transportation  is  very  difficult.  Notwith- 
standing, this  model  should  not  be  imitated. 

The  cylinders  are  lowered  by  means  of  screws  or  levers. 

The  engine  is,  moreover,  furnished  with  washing-drums 
or  strainers,  or  with  both.  The  water  is  let  in  by  means 
of  common  stopcocks  or  a  sluice  valve,  and  runs  off  either 
at  the  upper  or  lower  part  of  the  cistern.    We  have 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


249 


dwelt  for  some  time  upon  the  advantages  presented  by 
the  engine  based  upon  the  latter  principle. 

The  engine  should  be  furnished  with  a  sand-trap  and 
hollow  to  collect  nails,  coarse  gravel,  etc.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing their  evident  usefulness,  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  engines  in  which  they  are  not  introduced. 

The  cylinders  are  moved  by  pinions. 
"  "  "  belts. 

"  "  "         a  small  special  steam  en- 

gine, as  may  be  seen  at  the  paper-mill  of  Essonne. 

The  principle  to  be  attained  in  the  transmission  of 
power  is  that  the  cylinder  should  be  drawn  down  instead 
of  being  lifted  up,  as  is  unfortunately  the  case  when  pin- 
ions are  used. 

We  give  (PI.  II.,  Figs.  1  and  2),  a  plan  of  transmitting 
motion  to  two  cylinders,  a  washer  and  beater.  The 
beating  cylinder  is  raised.  This  is  an  error  into  which 
we  o^ight  never  to  fall,  for  with  belts  this  inconvenience 
is  removed  by  placing  the  axle  of  the  transmission  on 
the  story  below  the  cylinder-room. 

The  belts  are  of  leather  or  gutta  percha.  These  last, 
though  easily  mended,  are  open  to  the  objection  of 
stretching  from  the  effects  of  heat,  principally  in  sum- 
mer.   Their  use  should  be  avoided  in  warm  climates. 

The  pillow  blocks  of  these  cylinders  are  generally 
bronze.  In  a  large  paper-mill,  they  may  be  advantage- 
ously replaced  by  supports  of  hard,  close-grained  wood 
(service  tree  or  pear  tree),  and  lubricated  by  a  current 
of  water.  This  affords  an  economy  of  oil.  The  pillow 
blocks  should  be  renewed  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  show 
signs  of  wearing. 

The  capacity  of  the  engines  varies  from  40  to  110 
kilog.  (88.18  to  242.51  lbs.  avoird  )  of  dry  pulp. 

The  inclined  planes  are  more  or  less  abrupt.  The 


250  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAEING. 

diameter  of  the  waste  pipe  is  variable.  It  should  be 
carried  as  high  as  0.20  or  0.25  metres  (7.86  to  9.82  in.) 
instead  of  0.12  to  0.16  metres  (4.76  to  6.28  in.)  as  is 
generally  adopted. 

All  things  equal,  the  waste  pipe  of  the  washing  ought 
to  be  larger  than  that  of  the  beating  engines. 

§  7.  Apparatus  for  Bleaching  and  Draining  the 

Pulp. 

When  liquid  chlorine  is  used,  we  have  seen  that  the 
stuff  is  bleached  in  the  washing  engine,  or  in  special  vats 
called  bleachers. 

They  are  sometimes  wooden,  and  sometimes  of  cemented 
brick,  and  contain  from  200  to  600  kilog.  (440  to  1322 
lbs.  avoird.)  of  dry  pulp,  according  to  their  dimensions. 

The  chambers  for  bleaching  with  chlorine  gas  are,  at 
the  present  day,  generally  built  of  brick  and  cement. 
Formerly,  they  were  lined,  with  either  earthenware 
plates,  slates,  or  slabs  of  granite.  They  contain  between 
800  and  1800  kilog.  (1703  and  3968  lbs.  avoird.)  of 
dry  half  stuff. 

The  pulp  is  drained  by  means  of  the  following  differ- 
ent contrivances : — 

1st.  Hydraulic  press. 
2d.  Lamothe-Ferrand  drainer. 
3d.  Centrifugal  drainer. 
4th.  In  the  reservoir. 

These  several  drainage  chests  differ  in  the  nature  of 
the  materials  employed  in  their  construction  ;  some  are 
of  wood  with  a  grated  bottom,  and  others  of  mason  work 
with  bottoms  made  of  a  particular  kind  of  hollow  brick. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL.  251 


§  8.  Paper-Machines. 

Paper-machines  are  classified  according  to  the  width 
of  the  paper  they  are  intended  to  make. 

The  large,  2.00  to  2.40  metres  (7.56  to  8.87  ft.). 

The  medium  sized,  1.40  to  1.90  metres  (4.59  to  6.23  ft.). 

The  small,  1.00  to  1.40  metres  (3.28  to  4.59  ft.). 

In  some  mills,  the  great  circular  feeding  vats  of  the 
machine  are  replaced  by  large  reservoirs  of  mason-work, 
where  the  pulp  is  stirred  by  axles  with  spokes  arranged 
around  them  in  spirals.  This  is  a  bad  plan ;  for  when 
the  reservoir  is  not  full,  the  pulp  brought  up  by  the  pad- 
dles is  thrown  against  the  sides  of  the  tank,  and  dries 
into  so  many  hard  cakes.  The  pulp  is  then  raised  by 
means  of  a  pump  and  poured  upon  the  sand  traps. 

These  sand  traps  are  very  variable  in  dimensions  and 
arrangement.  Some  are  very  short  and  simple,  others, 
on  the  contrary,  are  arranged  in  a  labyrinth,  so  as  to 
force  the  pulp  to  make  the  longest  possible  circuit. 

The  wooden  or  iron  inclined  blades  are  either  bare  or 
covered  with  a  felt  which  more  readily  retains  the  sand 
or  other  impurities  which  may  have  escaped  the  tritu- 
rating process. 

The  difi'erent  systems  proposed  for  purifying  the  pulp 
are  numerous.  ,  They  may  be  classified  into  about  twelve 
groups. 

The  boundary  straps  or  deckles  which  regulate  the 
width  of  the  layer  of  pulp  upon  the  wire  cloth,  and  in 
consequence  that  of  the  dry  paper,  are  of  dry  leather  or 
India  rubber.  Those  of  vulcanized  India  rubber  in  a 
single  strip  are  preferred  at  the  present  day. 

The  exhaustion  of  air  is  carried  on  by  suction  pum.ps, 
or  automatically  by  means  of  a  pneumatic  apparatus. 


252 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  rollers  which  stretch  the  web  are  often  of  too  small 
a  diameter,  and  wear  it  out  unnecessarily. 

The  number  of  wet  presses  varies  from  two  to  five.  The 
older  machines  had  only  three.  The  present  tendency, 
justified  by  practice,  is  to  increase  this  number,  and  re- 
gard three  as  a  minimum. 

The  felts  are  kept  tense  by  means  of : — 

Tirettes. 
Broken  rollers. 
Grooved  " 

Cylindrical  rollers  bearing  two  strips  of  leather 
arranged  in  a  spiral,  one  on  the  right,  the  other 
on  the  left,  relatively  to  the  axis  of  the  roller. 

The  number  of  drying  cylinders  is  variable : — 

3  is  the  minimum. 

5  is  the  medium;  and  there  are 

8  to  10  in  some  machines. 

This  last  number  seems  to  us  exaggerated.  Six  appear 
to  be  the  best  number,  of  which  four  serve  to  dry  the 
paper,  and  two  the  felts. 

These  cylinders  are  arranged  in  one,  two,  or  three 
tiers.  In  the  last  case,  the  upper  cylinder  serves  exclu- 
sively to  dry  the  felt. 

We  think  it  preferable  not  to  go  beyond  two  tiers  in 
order  not  to  augment  too  greatly  the  resistance  of  the 
works.  Moreover  the  repairs  are  otherwise  very  much 
more  difficult ;  as  special  scaff'olding  has  to  be  erected. 

The  reels  are  of  variable  diameters.  This  variation  is 
obtained  either  simultaneously  with  all  the  spokes  of  the 
same  wheel  at  once  or  separately,  by  increasing  or  dimi- 
nishing the  distance  from  the  centre  of  each  spoke. 

It  seems  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  we  very  much 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


253 


prefer  the  first  arrangement,  which  gives  the  same  spread 
to  all  the  spokes  at  once. 

The  paper-machine  needing  a  perfectly  regular  motion 
should  have  a  motive  power  of  its  own,  whether  it  be 
water-wheel,  turbine,  or  steam-engine. 

When  the  motive  pov/er  to  be  disposed  of  is  abundant, 
we  advise  the  use  of  a  small  turbine,  fed  by  a  reservoir, 
having  its  water  always  at  the  same  level,  as  the  reservoir 
may  be  placed  at  a  considerable  height,  say  in  the  upper 
story  of  the  mill. 

Generally  a  small  high  pressure  engine  is  employed, 
and  the  steam,  after  being  used  as  a  motive  power,  serves 
for  heating  the  drying  cylinders. 

Each  paper-machine  should  be  furnished  with  pinions, 
admitting  different  velocities,  or  graduated  pulleys  to 
allow  the  manufacture  of  thin  or  heavy  papers.  Three 
rates  of  motion  are  considered  sufficient,  the  high,  the 
medium,  and  the  low.  To  facilitate  the  management  of 
the  machine,  it  is  well  to  have  at  each  stage  of  transmis- 
sion, extensible  pulleys,  or  those  with  variable  diameters, 
as  well  as  struts  to  prevent  the  belts  from  slipping. 

§  9.  Finishing  Machines. 

1st.  Hand  and  screw  presses  are  still  used  for  some 
common  hand-made  papers. 

2d.  Screw  presses,  which  are  generally  used  in  paper- 
mills  to  facilitate  the  operation  of  packing. 

3d.  Hydraulic  presses,  with  a  power  of  200  to  300 
kilogrammes  (196.85  to  295.67  tons),  used  for  satining 
some  of  the  handsomest  kinds  of  paper,  and  bank-note 
paper,  when  the  clearness  of  the  watermark  would  be 
injured  by  the  ordinary  rollers. 


254  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


4th.  Rolling  machines  for  satining,  glazing,  etc.,  are 
of  several  kinds. 

1st.  Counterpoise  rollers. 

2d.  Rollers  whose  pinions  allow  a  variable  distance 
between  the  two  cylinders. 
3d.  Spring  rollers. 

4th.  Rollers  consisting  of  one  cylinder,  revolving  upon 
a  horizontal  table,  generally  called  glazing  machines,  and 
only  used  for  small  sized  paper. 

5th.  Rolling  machines  are  again  divided  into  two 
classes:  1st.  Those  having  a  single,  and  2d,  those  hav- 
ing a  double  or  return  motion ;  the  cylinders  revolving 
first  from  right  to  left,  and  then  from  left  to  right.  This 
machine  ought  to  be  exclusively  used  in  order  to  avoid 
accidents. 

6th.  Continuous  rollers  consisting  of  two  cylinders,  of 
which  one  is  of  metal  and  the  other  of  paper. 

7th.  Three  cylindrical  rollers  or  calenders,  the  two 
extreme  cylinders  being  of  polished  iron,  the  middle  of 
paper. 

A  well-provided  paper-mill  ought  to  contain  all  these 
machines  so  as  to  be  able  to  deliver  the  different  kinds 
of  paper  demanded  by  commerce. 

« 

§  10.  General  Working  Stock  of  a  Paper-Mill. 

We  give,  as  a  matter  of  information,  an  enumeration 
of  the  different  machines  and  apparatus  used  in  the 
Todde  paper-mill  at  Hainsberg  (Saxony),  the  daily  pro- 
duction of  which  reaches  as  high  as  7,500  kilogrammes 
(7.82  tons)  of  various  kinds  of  paper. 

1  paper  machine,  2.33  metres  (7.64  feet)  broad. 

2  "         "       1.90     "     (6.23   "  )  " 
4  turbines. 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL.  255 


3  steam-engines. 

11  "  boilers. 

12  pumps.' 

5  rag-cutting  machines. 

2  dusting  " 
5  rotary  boilers. 

10  bleaching  vats  (large  model). 
30  rag-engines. 

3  centrifugal  continuous  refining  machines. 
9  large  reservoirs  for  liquid  chlorine. 

12  chambers  for  chlorine  gas. 
5  centrifugal  drainers. 

4  cutting  machines. 
4  satining  " 

13  iron  presses. 

The  cost  of  the  land,  hydraulic  apparatus,  tramways, 
buildings,  foundations,  motive  power,  machines,  tools, 
etc.,  is  estimated  at  2,201,000  francs  (about  $440,000). 

We  should  not,  for  motives  of  ill-advised  economy,  run 
to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  in  order  to  avoid  too  great 
an  original  outlay,  purchase  defective  or  incomplete 
materials.  This,  however,  will  very  much  depend  upon 
the  style  of  paper  we  propose  to  manufacture.  Eag- 
engine,  with  wooden  or  mason  work  cisterns,  are  suffi- 
cient for  ordinary  purposes,  but  would  not  be  suitable 
for  making  the  finest  kinds.  The  essential  point  is  to 
have  machines  well  adapted  to  their  peculiar  uses. 

§11.  General  Remarks  upon  the  Establishment  of  a 
Paper-Mill. 

To  establish  a  paper-mill  requires  a  profound  study 
of  the  following  questions: — 


256  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

1st.  Is  the  mill  to  be  situated  near  a  great  city]  a 
city  of  middling  importance '?  in  a  village,  or  at  a  dis- 
tance from  any  habitation '? 

2d.  Shall  water  be  used  as  the  motive  power  ? 

3d.  Does  not  the  water  to  be  used  for  washing  the 
pulp  contain,  in  suspension,  any  matters  which  may 
impair  the  quality  of  the  paper  we  desire  to  make  1 

4th.  The  water  being  more  or  less  impure,  and  the 
soil  allowing  the  use  of  artesian  wells,  should  we  incur 
the  expense  of  boring'? 

5th.  Will  not  the  use  of  a  water-filter  be  more  advan- 
tageous ] 

6th.  Is  the  fall  of  water  sufficient  to  move  the  entire 
apparatus  for  transmitting  the  power 

7th.  Is  the  water. course  subject  to  freshets  or 
droughts  ]  and  if  so,  how  many  days'  delay  may  it  cause 
in  the  course  of  the  year '? 

8th.  What  hydraulic  motive  power  shall  we  adopt] 
the  turbine  or  the  ordinary  water-wheel  1 

9th.  The  fall  of  water  being  insufficient  for  the  entire 
transmission,  will  it  be  more  advantageous  to  purchase 
a  neighboring  fall  and  there  establish  our  rag-engines, 
than  to  set  up  a  permanent  steam-engine  in  the  mill 
itself] 

10th.  What  are  the  means  of  communication  at  our 
disposal  for  transmitting  and  receiving  goods  ]  roads, 
canals,  railroads'?  Comparative  study  of  the  different 
freightage  by  each  of  these  methods  of  transportation. 
What  sort  of  goods  shall  be  conveyed  by  each'? 

11th.  What  will  be  the  freightage  by  the  hundred 
weight  of  each  raw  material,  and  for  transmitting  the 
paper,  when  made,  to  the  warehouse '? 

12th.  Shall  we  employ  the  rags  of  the  neighborhood, 
or  shall  we  import  them  from  distant  centres  of  supply '? 


"WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


257 


13th.  Cost  of  labor  in  the  locality,  estimate  of  its 
value  after  a  certain  length  of  time  1 

14:th.  Would  there  be  an  advantage  in  having  an 
establishment  for  cutting  rags  in  a  neighboring  city, 
rather  than  in  the  mill  itself] 

15  th.  Shall  we  bleach  with  liquid  chlorine,  or  chlorine 
gas] 

§  12.  General  Remarks  in  Eeference  to  Building. 

1st.  Cost  of  building  materials. 

1st.  Stone,  brick,  slates,  tiles. 

2d.  Lime,  sand,  cement. 

3d.  Wood,  iron,  zinc,  lead.  ^ 

4th.  Painting,  glazing. 
2d.  What  kind  of  material  shall  we  choose  for  the 
different  parts  of  the  building  ] 

3d.  Estimate  of  the  expense  of  building. 
4th.  Purchase  of  the  material. 
5th.  Cost  of  transportation. 

6th.  Will  the  plan  of  the  building  allow  the  subse- 
quent addition  of  a  second  and  third  machine  ] 

7th.  Is  the  general  arrangement  of  rooms  for  the 
different  operations  methodical  ]  Do  the  materials  have 
to  be  carried  over  the  least  possible  space,  or  will  a 
longer  route,  necessitated  by  a  fixed  position,  be  com- 
pensated by  peculiar  advantage  ] 

8th.  What  must  be  the  profit  on  each  scale  of  prices, 
to  compensate  for  the  cost  of  building  and  the  material 
employed  ] 

9th.  Estimate  of  the  outlay  to  be  made  during  the 
first  two  years  following  the  opening  of  the  mill. 

10th.  What  spare  apparatus  or  parts  of  apparatus 
must  we  have  on  hand  to  prevent  delay  ] 
17 


258  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


11th.  Are  we  limited  by  a  fixed  capital  wliich  we 
cannot  go  beyond  1 

12th.  Would  it  not  be  advantageous  to  lay  at  the 
outset  certain  foundations  or  water-works  in  view  of  a 
future  enlargement  of  the  milU 

« 

§  13.  General  Considerations. 

The  engineer  employed  to  make  the  plan  of  a  paper- 
mill  cannot  bestow  too  much  care  in  studying  the  gene- 
ral arrangement  of  the  buildings.  Although  it  is 
impossible  to  give  any  fixed  rule  for  works  of  this  nature 
which  vary  for  each  locality,  we  shall  try  to  throw  some 
light  upon  the  subject  by  grouping  together  the  different 
observations  we  have  been  able  to  collect,  and  by  investi- 
gating the  qualities  and  defects  of  the  most  approved 
plans. 

The  buildings  of  a  paper-mill  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes. 

1st.  Main  buildings  containing  the  motive  power,  the 
machinery  for  transmitting  it,  pumps,  rag-engines,  appa- 
ratus for  cutting,  dusting,  and  boiling ;  store-rooms  for 
crude  and  cut  rags,  the  paper  machine,  and  the  finishing- 
room. 

2d.  The  secondary  building  for  bleaching-rooms, 
boiler-rooms,  store-rooms  for  the  pulp,  work-shops, 
offices,  &c. 

The  buildings  of  the  first  class  are  sometimes  com- 
bined in  one  rectangular  edifice  of  a  size  proportional  to 
the  extent  of  the  proposed  works.  We  prefer,  however, 
a  second  building  annexed  to  the  first  at  right  angles  to 
contain  the  paper-machine  and  finishing-room. 

Starting  with  this  plan,  the  subdivisions  of  the  build- 
ing would  be  as  follows : — 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL. 


259 


1st.  Main  Building. 

On  the  ground  floor:  motive  power  (in  the  case  of 
steam  engines)  pumps,  and  store-chests  for  the  pulp.  A 
basement  might  indeed  be  made  a  store-room  for  pulp, 
if  the  topographical  position  of  the  mill  would  allow  the 
water  to  drain  off. 

On  the  second  floor:  washing  and  beating  engines, 
bleaching  vats,  boiling  apparatus,  the  preparation  of  size, 
store-room  for  pulp,  &c. 

On  the  third  floor :  the  cutting  and  sorting  room, 
store-room  for  cut  rags,  duster,  reservoir  of  water,  &c. 

Loft :  the  store-room  for  crude  rags. 

2d.  Annealed  Building. 

Ground  floor :  the  paper  machine ;  parallel  with  it  or 
in  suit,  the  finishing-room  for  coarse  and  wrapping 
paper. 

On  the  second  floor:  the  satining  machine,  calenders 
for  finishing  fine  papers.  This  story  is  not  carried  over 
that  containing  the  paper  machine. 

In  the  case  of  a  paper-mill  where  two  machines  are 
used,  the  two  rooms  at  right  angles  to  the  building  may- 
be connected  by  another  serving  as  the  finishing-room  on 
the  second  floor,  and  below  as  a  general  store-room  for  the 
uses  of  the  mill. 

There  are  several  mills  where  both  machines  are  in  the 
same  room  and  placed  opposite  to  each  other. 

This  arrangement  does  not  seem  to  us  to  be  well  de- 
vised. As  each  machine  ought  to  have  its  distinct  set 
of  workmen,  there  is  no  economy  in  labor,  and  this  as- 
sociation of  the  two  may  be  fatal  to  the  work  of  the  mill 
in  case  of  accidents  or  repairs. 

It  is  indispensable,  in  order  to  insure  regularity  in 


260  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

manufacturing,  that  each  machine  should  have  a  motive 
power  of  its  own,  whether  it  be  a  turbine  wheel  or  steam 
engine,  so  that  a  change  in  the  rate  of  motion  of  one 
may  not  influence  that  of  the  other,  and  conversely. 

It  would,  therefore,  be  wrong  to  derive  the  motive 
power  of  the  paper-machine  from  the  same  machinery 
which  works  the  rag-engines  and  the  boiling  or  other 
apparatus,  all  of  them  subject  to  constant  variations  of 
velocity. 

The  window  sashes  of  the  room  containing  the  paper 
machine  should  be  of  iron,  covered  with  a  double  coat  of 
paint  composed  of  red  and  white  lead.  Wood  is  too 
much  affected  by  the  succession  of  dryness  and  warm 
moisture  to  which  it  is  exposed.  It  soon  rots  and  exudes 
a  blackish  liquid,  produced  by  the  action  of  steam  upon 
the  coloring  matter  of  the  wood,  which  soils  the  window 
panes.  The  room  ought  to  be  light  and  provided  with 
a  ventilator  to  carry  off  the  vapor  arising  from  the  dry- 
ing cylinders.  The  floor  ought  to  have  an  inclination 
sufficient  to  carry  off  rapidly  the  water  used  in  washing. 

Almost  all  the  older  machine-rooms  are  too  limited 
in  size,  but  especially  in  length.  Many  even  will  not 
allow  a  cutting-machine  to  be  set  up  beyond  the  reels. 
For  large  machines  a  room  45  metres  (147.64  ft.)  in 
length  may  be  considered  as  a  good  medium. 

To  give  greater  solidity  to  the  main  building,  the 
thickness  of  the  walls  may  be  increased  at  certain  in- 
tervals. This  kind  of  buttress  serves  to  give  the  building 
an  ornamental  appearance,  and,  the  points  bearing  the 
principal  weights  being  thus  supported,  the  intervals  may 
be  built  comparatively  thin. 

In  localities  where  mason  work  is  costly,  it  may  be 
advantageous  to  use  iron  supports  for  the  machinery,  the 
floors  of  the  rag-engines,  boiling  apparatus,  &c.  Gene- 


WORKING  STOCK  OF  A  PAPER-MILL.  261 


rally  it  is  proper  to  adopt  very  heavy  arches  in  order  that 
the  continual  shaking  may  not  affect  the  solidity  of  the 
building. 

The  steam  boilers  are  placed  either  within  or  without 
the  main  building.  The  latter  place  is  very  much  the 
best. 

At  the  present  day,  when  we  are  better  informed  in 
regard  to  the  facility  of  conveying  steam  to  a  distance  by 
surrounding  the  pipes  with  non-conducting  substances, 
the  boilers  and  chimney  are  placed  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, in  order  to  avoid  the  chances  of  fire  or  explosion. 

A  simple  precautionary  measure  to  diminish  the  dan- 
ger of  fire  is  to  conduct  steam  pipes  into  all  rooms  con- 
taining inflammable  or  combustible  substances,  as  it  has 
been  found  from  experience  that  steam,  in  a  confined 
place,  will  extinguish  fire  almost  instantaneously.  As 
the  market  value  of  drawn  out  iron  tubing  has  for  the 
last  few  years  been  quite  low,  this  kind  of  apparatus 
would  not  require  much  outlay. 

We  very  much  prefer  rag-rooms  situated  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  building,  as  the  air  will  be  more  readily  re- 
newed, and  the  light  better.  Nevertheless  we  know  of 
mills  where  they  are  placed  on  the  ground  floor,  but  this 
arrangement  necessitates  an  increase  in  the  area  of  the 
building,  which  in  many  cases  could  not  be  afforded. 

As  the  rags  become  quickly  heated  from  being  piled 
together  in  great  heaps,  especially  if  damp,  their  posi- 
tion has  frequently  to  be  changed.  In  order  to  avoid 
the  labor  of  this  operation,  the  depth  of  the  chests  should 
be  diminished,  and  if  necessary  they  should  be  provided 
with  sheet-iron  chimneys  pierced  with  holes,  serving  to 
establish  a  sort  of  ventilation. 

The  quarters  of  the  superintendent  and  employees 


262 


PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


ought  to  be  at  a  distance  from  the  mill.  (See  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  general  plan  of  paper-mills.) 

A  paper-mill  at  a  distance  from  any  city  ought  to  be 
provided  with  a  workshop,  and  all  necessary  tools  for 
repairs.  Near  the  centres  of  population,  on  the  contrary, 
where  machine  shops  are  well  supplied,  this  expense  is 
less  necessary. 

Th^  intelligence  of  the  engineer  or  the  h^ad  of  the 
establishment  should,  therefore,  determine  this  question, 
by  taking  into  consideration  the  necessity  of  economy  in 
the  original  outlay,  and  the  probable  cost  of  repairs  dur- 
ing the  working  of  the  mill. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  WOOD.  263 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  WOOD  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  most  successful  process  of  manufacturing  paper 
pulp  from  wood,  ever  used  in  the  United  States,  is  the 
subject  of  a  patent  granted  July  18,  1864,  to  Charles 
Watt  and  Hugh  Burgess,  and  reissued  to  Wm.  F.  Ladd 
and  Morris  L.  Keen  as  assignees,  April  7,  1863,  and 
now  owned  by  the  American  Wood  Paper  Company. 
This  process  is  now  in  very  extensive  operation  at  the 
Manayunk  Wood  Pulp  Works,  situated  at  Manayunk, 
Pa.,  between  the  Schuylkill  E-iver  and  the  canal.  These 
works  are  the  largest  establishment  for  the  manufacture 
of  wood  pulp  in  the  world,  covering  ten  acres  of  land. 
They  were  commenced  in  August,  1864,  and  completed 
in  April,  1866,  at  a  cost  of  about  $500,000,  and  there  is 
over  $1,000,000  invested  in  them,  and  the  paper-mills  run 
in  connection  with  them.  Their  capacity  of  production 
is  twenty-four  thousand  to  thirty  thousand  pounds  of 
pulp  per  day.  The  whole  establishment  has  been  leased 
by  Messrs.  Jessup  and  Moore  and  Martin  Nixon,  of 
Philadelphia. 

To  bring  the  process  of  Messrs.  Watt  and  Burgess  to 
perfection,  it  has  been  necessary  to  devise  much  appa- 
ratus and  machinery  of  a  novel  character,  which  is  pro- 
tected by  other  patents,  and  the  most  important  of  which 
will  be  explained  in  the  progress  of  the  description  which 
is  hereinafter  given  of  the  details  of  the  process. 

Messrs.  Watt  and  Burgess'  process,  as  described  in 


264  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  specification  of  their  patent,  consists  in  boiling  the 
wood,  after  it  has  been  cut  into  fine  chips  or  shavings, 
in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali,  in  a  closed  boiler,  under  a 
high  pressure  of  steam,  and  consequently  at  a  high  tem- 
perature. After  having  been  boiled  to  a  pulp,  the  pulp 
is  washed  with  water,  and  if  the  wood  used  be  of  a  resi- 
nous character,  the  pulp,  after  having  been  washed,  is 
subjected  to  the  action  of  chlorine,  or  its  compounds 
with  oxygen ;  but  in  the  Manayunk  works,  only  the  non- 
resinous  woods,  such  as  poplar,  hemlock,  and  white 
wood  are  used,  these  being  plentiful  and  of  comparatively 
little  value  for  other  purposes. 

The  wood  is  brought  to  the  works  in  the  condition  of 
cord  wood,  by  teams,  railroads,  and  a  fleet  of  wood 
barges.  It  is  cut  obliquely  to  the  grain,  into  fine  chips, 
by  means  of  machines  having  cutters  attached  to  rotary 
disks,  and  resembling  gigantic  straw  or  fodder  cutters, 
the  logs  being  fed  to  the  cutters  through  slanting  troughs 
down  which  they  slide  to  the  cutters.  The  chips  fall 
from  the  cutters  through  openings  in  the  floor  on  which 
the  machines  are  situated,  and  are  received  in  wagons 
running  on  railways  in  the  basement,  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  them  to  mechanical  elevators,  by  which  they 
are  raised  up  to  a  floor  above  the  boilers  in  which  the 
pulping  process  is  performed. 

The  boilers  above  mentioned  are  of  peculiar  con- 
struction, which  is  the  subject  of  patents  to  Morris  L. 
Keen,  dated  September  13,  1859,  and  June  16,  1863. 
They  are  of  the  form  of  upright  cylinders  with  semi- 
spheroidal  ends,  and  are  fed  through  man-holes  at  the 
top,  provided  with  suitable  lids  which  are  closed  when 
the  boilers  have  been  charged.  At  some  distance  below 
the  mouths  or  upper  man-holes,  there  are  horizontal 
perforated  diaphragms,  through  which  the  caustic  alka- 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  WOOD.  265 


line  solution  may  rise  above  the  chips,  which  are  fed  in 
to  the  space  below  through  central  openings  of  suitable 
size.  Between  the  central  openings  in  the  diaphragms 
and  the  upper  man-holes,  there  are  perforated  upright 
connecting  cylinders  or  wells,  with  man-lids  at  the  bot- 
tom to  confine  the  chips  below  the  diaphragm  when  the 
boiler  is  full,  and  so  keep  them  covered  with  the  caustic 
alkaline  solution  which  is  allowed  to  rise  above  the  dia- 
•phragm.  When  the  boilers  have  been  charged  with 
chips,  they  are  closed  up,  and  filled  to  a  suitable  height 
with  the  alkaline  solution,  and  the  boiling  process  is 
commenced.  This  is  continued  imder  a  pressure  of 
about  seventy  pounds  per  square  inch  for  a  sufficient 
time,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  wood,  to  reduce  the 
chips  to  pulp,  which  is  then  discharged  through  valves 
or  gates  at  the  bottom,  by  the  pressure  of  steam  above, 
into  closed  vessels  of  larger  capacity  than  the  boilers. 
In  these  vessels,  after  it  has  been  allowed  to  expand, 
the  pulp  is  drained  through  strainers  in  the  bottom  of 
the  vessels,  and  after  it  has  been  drained  the  pulp  is 
discharged  into  wagons  in  which  it  is  taken  away  for 
further  treatment.  The  alkaline  solution  which  is 
drained  from  the  pulp  is  collected  in  underground 
drains,  whence  it  is  conveyed  by  pipes  to  the  furnaces 
in  which  the  water  is  evaporated  and  the  alkali  calcined 
to  be  used  over  again  on  new  stock.  Some  idea  may 
be  formed  of  the  immense  scale  on  which  the  process  is 
carried  on,  when  it  is  stated  that  the  boilers  with  the 
expanding  tanks  and  receiving  wagons  occupy  a  building 
132  feet  long  and  75  feet  wide. 

Before  describing  the  calcining  or  alkali-recovering 
furnaces,  we  will  follow  the  pulp  till  it  arrives  at  the 
condition  to  be  worked  into  paper.  The  pulp,  when  it 
is  received  in  the  wagons,  is  of  a  dark  grayish-brown 


266  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


color,  but  after  having  been  drained  for  some  time 
through  the  bottoms  of  the  wagons,  which  are  suitably 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  it  assumes  a  lighter  color. 
It  is  then  washed  by  sprinkling  it  with  clean  water, 
which  percolates  through  it  and  escapes  through  the 
bottoms  of  the  wagons  before  they  are  removed  from 
the  boiling  house.  By  means  of  railway  turn-tables  ar- 
ranged in  front  of  the  boilers  and  expanding  vessels,  the 
wagons  are  run  on  to  railways  on  which  they  travel  to  a 
building  in  which  there  are  large  pulp  engines,  like 
those  employed  for  the  reduction  of  rags.  In  these  en- 
gines, the  pulp  is  worked  for  some  time  preparatory  to 
being  run  through  cleaning  machines,  substantially  like 
what  are  known  as  cylinder  paper-machines,  but  having 
no  dryers.  From  these  engines  the  pulp  is  run  off  in 
the  form  of  a  web,  from  which  any  specks  or  bad  parts 
are  removed  by  attendants.  The  pulp  delivered  from 
these  cleaning  machines  is  taken  to  the  bleach  house, 
where  the  bleaching  is  performed  in  vats  in  substantially 
the  same  manner  as  other  paper  stock  is  bleached ;  and 
after  bleaching  it  is  ready  to  be  worked  into'  paper  by 
the  machines  commonly  employed. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  establish- 
ment, if  not  the  most  important  in  a  commercial  sense, 
is  the  evaporating  and  calcining  house  in  which  the 
waste  alkaline  solution,  which  is  drained  from  the  pulp, 
has  all  its  water  evaporated  and  its  alkali  recalcined  for 
use  on  new  stock.  Without  this  or  some  equally  suc- 
cessful means  of  recovering  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  alkali,  the  process  would  be  commercially  a  failure, 
owing  to  the  great  expense  involved  in  the  consumption 
of  alkali.  The  amount  of  alkali  saved  every  time  the 
process  of  reduction  of  the  wood  to  pulp  is  performed  is 
no  less  than  85  per  cent,  of  the  whole  quantity  used. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  WOOD.  267 


The  alkali  thus  recovered  has  15  per  cent,  of  fresh  alkali 
mixed  with  it  for  every  repetition  of  the  pulping  pro- 
cess. 

The  evaporating  and  calcining  house  is  a  large  circu- 
lar building,  200  feet  in  diameter,  and  reminds  us  of 
the  locomotive  sheds  at  some  of  the  largest  railway  de- 
pots. The  furnaces,  which  are  of  great  length,  radiate 
from  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  all  communicate 
with  one  enormous  central  chimney.  They  are  so  con- 
structed according  to  a  patent  granted  to  Morris  L. 
Keen  and  Hugh  Burgess,  February  7,  1865,  that  the 
flame  and  hot  gases  of  combustion  from  the  fire,  urged 
by  a  strong  draft,  are  first  caused  to  pass  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  liquor  to  be  evaporated  on  the  sole  or  hearth 
of  the  furnace,  and  afterwards  caused  to  circulate  both 
over  and  under  a  series  of  pans  through  which  the  liquid 
flows  in  its  transit  to  the  hearth.  The  liquor  is  con- 
ducted from  the  pulp-boiling  house  to  the  evaporating 
house,  by  the  underground  drains  before  mentioned,  into 
a  suitable  reservoir  whence  it  is  pumped  up  into  the 
evaporating  furnaces.  The  alkali  from  which  the  water 
has  been  evaporated  in  these  furnaces  is  transferred  to 
the  calcining  furnaces,  and  after  calcination  is  taken  to 
the  mixing  house,  where  it  has  the  proper  proportion  of 
fresh  alkali  mixed  with  it  preparatory  to  its  being  used 
over  again.  The  solution  is  made  in  immense  tanks 
fitted  with  revolving  stirrers,  and  from  these  tanks  it  is 
conveyed  to  the  pulp-boiling  bouse,  to  be  fed  into  the 
boilers. 

It  is  found  in  practice  advantageous  to  mix  with  the 
wood  pulp  about  one-fourth  of  the  same  quantity  of 
straw  pulp.  Adjacent  to  the  Manayunk  Wood  Pulp 
Works  are  the  Flat  Rock  Paper  Mills,  owned  by  Martin 
Nixon,  and  in  connection  with  these  mills,  the  manufac- 


268  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

ture  of  straw  pulp  at  the  rate  of  from  seven  thousand  to 
eight  thousand  pounds  daily  is  carried  on  for  mixture 
with  the  wood  pulp.  The  paper  made  in  these  mills 
from  the  above-mentioned  proportions  of  wood  and 
straw  pulp,  without  any  rags,  is  of  excellent  quality  and 
color,  and  far  superior  to  what  is  used  for  many  news- 
papers. 

A  large  quantity  of  the  stock  made  at  the  Manayunk 
Wood  Pulp  Works  is  worked  up  into  thick  paper,  to  be 
transported  to  the  E-ockland  Paper  Mills  of  Jessup  and 
.Moore,  on  the  Brandy  wine,  Delaware,  and  there  re- 
worked into  printing  paper.  The  daily  production  of 
paper  of  which  these  mills  and  the  Flat  Rock  Paper 
Mills  are  jointly  capable  is  equal  to  thirty  thousand 
pounds. 


• 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BOARDS. 


269 


CHAPTER  X. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  BOARDS. 

Boards  are  made  in  different  ways. 

1st.  By  superposing  several  leaves  of  paper,  and  unit- 
ing them  by  some  agglutinating  substance. 

2d.  By  superposing  several  wet  leaves  at  the  time  of 
couching. 

3d.  By  means  of  moulds  provided  with  very  thick 
deckels. 

4th.  By  special  machines,  analogous  to  those  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  continuous  paper. 

The  first  method,  strictly  speaking,  is  more  the  art  of 
the  manufacturer  of  binder's  boards  than  of  the  paper- 
maker.  Playing-cards  come  under  this  head.  They  are 
composed  of  three  leaves:  the  first  being  destined  to 
receive  the  impression  of  the  figures  or  designs,  which 
constitute  the  different  suits  of  a  pack.  The  interme- 
diate one,  formed  of  a  more  solid  material,  gives  the 
firmness,  and  is  sometimes  colored  black  or  dark  blue  to 
render  the  card  opaque.  The  third  receives  the  spotted 
or  geometrical  designs  which  ornament  the  backs.  A 
gummy  solution,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  talc, 
is  lastly  applied  to  the  cards  in  order  to  give  them  a 
more  elegant  gloss. 

Before  entering  into  the  details  of  manufacture  we 
wish  to  establish  the  following  classification  : — 


270  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 

1st.  White  superfine  boards. 
2d.       "     half  fine  " 
3d.  Colored  boards. 
4th.  Common  gray  boards. 
5th.  Boards  for  satining  with  watermark. 
6th.  Boards  made  of  wood  or  straw. 
7th.  Boards  of  several  colors. 
The  majority  of  boards  are  made  of  all  kinds  of  waste 
paper,  and  other  refuse  material  of  a  paper-mill. 

The  first  step  is  sorting,  in  order  to  separate  the  white 
and  clean  parts,  which  are  reserved  for  fine  boards.  The 
material  afterwards  is  triturated  and  mixed  with  various 
proportions  of  rag  pulp,  kaolin,  chalk,  white  clays,  &c. 
The  boards  are  then  made  either  by  machine  or  by  hand. 
The  moulds  have  high  deckels,  so  as  to  retain  an 
^  amount  of  pulp  proportional  to  the  required  thickness 
of  the  boards.    Beyond  a  certain  limit,  however,  as  the 
drainage  would  be  long  and  difficult,  it  is  preferable  to 
couch  several  leaves  one  upon  the  other. 

The  work  is  performed  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as 
we  have  described  for  making  paper  by  hand.  Between 
each  pair  of  boards  is  placed  a  felt,  and  when  a  post  is 
finished  it  is  pressed. 

It  is  necessary  to  resort  to  the  exchange  to  soften  the 
grain.  The  boards  are  rapidly  dried  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  in  a  well-ventilated  room.  In  damp  weather, 
and  especially  in  winter,  the  boards  lack  firmness ;  their 
manufacture  should,  therefore,  be  reserved  for  fine  days. 

A  little  before  they  are  completely  dry  the  boards  un- 
dergo the  process  of  rolling,  in  order  to  remove  asperities 
and  render  the  surfaces  smooth  and  soft  to  the  touch. 

If  the  boards  were  too  dry,  this  operation  would  be 
difficult,  and  however  often  they  might  be  pressed  under 
the  rollers  the  surfaces  would  never  be  as  even. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BOARDS. 


271 


The  quality  of  boards  naturally  depends  upon  that  of 
the  material  employed  in  their  manufacture.  Those 
which  do  not  require  any  particular  resonance  contain 
an  enormous  amount  of  earthy  matters. 

Common  boards  are  made  of  all  sorts  of  refuse  mate- 
rial, such  as  damaged  pulp,  wasting  of  the  duster,  resi- 
duum left  in  purifying  the  pulp,  fibrous  materials  ob- 
tained in  cleansing  the  rag-engines,  &c. 

Colored  boards  are  rarely  ever  dyed  in  the  pulp,  the 
only  exception  being  in  the  case  of  fine  and  very  high-priced 
qualities.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  considered  sufiicient 
to  cover  common  boards  with  a  thin  sheet  of  colored  pa- 
per, and  submit  the  whole  to  the  action  of  a  rolling  press. 

Considerable  quantities  of  boards,  made  of  wood  or 
straw,  are  employed  at  the  present  day  for  packing  and 
binding  purposes. 

To  facilitate  the  disintegration  of  straw  it  is  sprinkled 
with  milk  of  lime,  and  after  a  fortnight's  fermentation 
the  softened  material  crushes  more  or  less  readily 
between  the  fingers.  The  trituration  of  this  substance 
presents  no  difiiculty,  and  the  washing  and  beating 
operations  are  generally  carried  on  in  the  same  engine. 

The  pulp  is  turned  into  great  elliptically  shaped  vats 
of  wood,  or  mason  work,  and  is  converted  into  boards 
by  means  of  a  great  mould,  handled  by  two  men,  who 
unite  in  doing  the  work  of  the  vatman  and  coucher 
successively.  In  order  to  give  cohesion  to  this  pulp, 
which  is  difiicult  of  drainage,  it  is  compressed  between 
two  moulds  deprived  of  their  deckels. 

These  boards  acquire  in  drying  a  certain  hardness  due 
in  part  to  their  great  thickness.  They  are  delivered  for 
sale  after  having  been  rolled  and  pared.  The  dimen- 
sions of  some  are  as  great  as  1.30  metre  in  length  by  1.00 
metre  in  breadth  (4.26  by  3.28  ft.) 


272  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  working  stock  of  a  mill  of  this  kind  is  always  of 
the  simplest  nature,  and  if  the  least  motive  power  can 
be  obtained,  may  be  established  at  a  small  expense. 

Within  a  few  years  past  it  has  been  proposed  to 
manufacture  boards  by  interposing  thin  laminae  of  wood, 
shaved  off  by  a  plane,  between  leaves  of  paper.  The 
product  obtained  is  economical,  as  we  substitute  for  paper 
a  material  of  lower  price,  of  greater  hardness,  and 
scarcely  if  at  all  hygrometric.  In  weaving,  the  appli- 
cation which  has  been  made  of  this  invention  to  the 
Jacquard  loom  has  rendered  some  service  to  that  branch 
of  industry.  As  an  extension  of  this  idea,  even  leaves 
of  metal  have  been  interposed  between  wet  boards,  so  as 
to  give  great  solidity  combined  with  comparative 
lightness. 

Double  colored  boards  are  made  by  a  machine  with 
two  webs  or  by  hand,  using  two  vats  and  couching  a 
leaf  of  one  color  upon  that  of  another. 

It  seems  to  us  useless  to  dwell  longer  upon  this  sub- 
ject, which  is  entirely  comprised  in  all  we  have  said  of 
the  manufacture  of  paper. 

Sorting  the  raw  materials. 

Boiling  and  bleaching. 

Sizing  and  coloring  the  pulp. 

Manufacture  proper  and  l&nishing. 

For  some  time,  in  France  and  Germany,  the  manu- 
facture of  boards  served  as  a  means  of  evading  the  law 
prohibiting  the  exportation  of  rags.  Half  triturated 
white  linen  rags  were  made  into  boards  and  exported  as 
a  manufactured  product. 

England  made  use  of  this  artifice  to  supply  her  paper- 
mills  with  the  raw  materials  they  lacked;  but  since  a 
free  exchange  has  been  permitted  this  state  of  things  is 
no  longer  in  existence,  at  least  in  France.  We  have 
thought  it  useful,  however,  to  record  the  fact. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  IN  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  273 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  IN  CHINA  AND  JAPAN. 

The  Chinese  make  their  paper  of  different  kinds  of 
bamboo  and  the  bark  of  several  trees,  of  which  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  Kochu.  The  leaves  of  this  tree  bear 
much  resemblance  to  those  of  the  mulberry,  but  the  fruit 
is  more  allied  to  the  fig. 

The  method  they  employ  is  t)ased  upon  the  same 
principles  as  those  we  have  set  forth  in  speaking  of  the 
manufacture  of  rag  paper.  For  boiling,  maceration  in 
pure  water  and  immersiom  in  a  milk  of  lime  is 
substituted. 

The  bark  is  then  washed  with  pure  water  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  which  bleaches  it.    After  being  soaked  in 
boiling  water  to  remove  the  gelatinous  matter,  which- 
unites  the  fibres,  the  bark  is  triturated  in  a  great  mortar 
with  mallets,  moved  by  hand  or  by  treadles. 

It  is  easily  understood  that  this  primitive  method  of 
trituration  preserves  the  fibres  of  a  greater  length,  and 
produces  a  different  kind  of  pulp  from  that  which  we 
see  in  European  paper-mills. 

To  give  adhesiveness  to  these  fibrillee  there  is  poured 
into  the  vat  a  mucilaginous  material,  obtained  by 
macerating  in  water  a  peculiar  plant  called  Koteng. 

The  paper  is  made  by  hand  with  very  light  moulds, 
in  which  wire  cloth  is  replaced  by  thin  sticks  of  bam- 
boo, passed  through  a  drawplate  in  order  to  make  them 
of  uniform  size,  and  boiled  in  oil  to  insure  their  pre- 
servation and  render  them  impermeable. 
18 


274  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PAPER-MAKING. 


The  operation  of  couching  does  not  require  felts,  a 
small  piece  of  bamboo  only  being  interposed  between 
each  of  the  wet  leaves. 

The  large  leaves  which  sometimes  attain  several  metres 
in  length,  are  manufactured  by  means  of  moulds,  sup- 
ported by  counter-weights,  and  handled  with  great  dex- 
terity by  several  workmen. 

These  large  leaves  are  dried  by  applying  them  to  the 
surface  of  a  wall,  which  during  the  winter  is  heated 
from  within. 

As  the  Chinese  write  with  a  brush,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  their  ;^aper  should  be  as  much  sized  as 
ours,  and  it  is,  therefore,  merely  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
alum.  Sometimes  a  size  is  prepared  by  dissolving  isin- 
glass in  water,  and  adding  a  certain  proportion  of  a 
solution  of  alum.  The  leaves  are  plunged  one  by  one 
into  the  tub  and  dried  separately,  and  to  facilitate  trans- 
portation are  fixed  in  the  end  of  a  split  stick. 

To  soften  the  surface  of  the  paper,  the  Chinese  spread 
over  it  with  a  brush  a  clear  solution  of  alum  and  talc, 
and  by  then  rubbing  the  surfaces  with  a  wad  of  cotton, 
they  are  rendered  smooth  and  very  soft  to  the  touch. 
Some  kinds  of  oiled  papers  acquire  greater  suppleness, 
and  resemble  satin  or  some  woven  material  so  closely 
that  they  might  be  mistaken  for  them,  and  are  used  by 
tailors  for  trimming  clothes. 

Japanese  paper  is  principally  made  from  the  bark  of 
the  Morus  papifera  sativa. 

The  branches  are  cut  into  lengths  of  about  one  metre 
(3.28  feet),  made  into  bundles  and  boiled  in  water  with 
the  addition  of  alum. 

After  this  boiling  the  bark  peels  off  easily  from  the 
wood,  and  is  then  sorted  very  carefully  into 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  IN  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  275 

No.  1.  Shoots  of  one  year  old. 
"    2.      "      "  less  than  one  year  old. 
"    3.      "      "  more  "     "      "  " 

The  mixture  of  these  barks  would  very  much  impair 
the  whiteness  and  quality. 

The  bark  is  again  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  slight 
lye ;  after  which  the  material  is  soft,  and  only  presents 
to  the  touch  the  feel  of  a  very  fibrous  substance.  This 
operation  demands  considerable  care.  After  an  abun- 
dant washing  the  pulp  is  triturated  upon  a  table  by 
beating  it  with  round  billets  of  very  hard  wood. 

When  the  trituration  is  accomplished,  an  extract  of 
rice  and  the  root  of  the  Oreni  is  poured  into  the  vat. 

The  paper  is  then  made  by  hand  in  a  manner  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  Chinese. 

What  distinguishes  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  papers 
from  those  of  Europe,  is  their  greater  softness,  smooth- 
ness, and  tenacity,  which  make  them  resemble  silk 
cloths.  It  may  easily  be  proved,  however,  by  igniting  ~ 
them,  that  they  are  entirely  composed  of  vegetable  mate- 
rial, which  burns  with  a  clear  flame,  whereas  all  animal 
substances  crisp,  curl  up,  and  emit  abundant  ammoniacai 
vapors. 

These  processes  are  very  rational,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  by  subjecting  certain  European  plants  to  the 
same  treatment  we  might  be  enabled  to  make  paper 
similar  to  that  of  the  Celestial  Empire ;  but  let  us  hasten 
to  add  that  such  could  only  be  manufactured  as  fancy 
papers,  more  curious  than  of  any  regular  commercial 
utility. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES, 


PLATE  I. 

Microscopic  Representations  of  Fibres  of  Hemp,  Flax,  Cotton,  Wool, 

and  Silk. 

Fig.  1. — The  fibres  of  hemp  and  of  flax  are  formed  of  straight,  elon- 
gated, cylindrical  cells;  those  of  flax  can  be  distinguished  only 
by  their  relatively  smaller  size.* 

Fig.  2. — Cotton,  fibres  resemble  tubes  flattened  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  and  generally  twisted  several  times  upon  themselves. 
Their  diameters  vary  from       to  -^q  of  a  millimetre  (yo^^oo 
T^Jfw  inches.) 

Fig.  3. — Filaments  of  wool,  formed  by  a  series  of  rings  articulated 
with  each  other,  diminishing  in  diameter  from  root  to  point,  and 
thus  producing  a  row  of  teeth,  similar  to  those  of  a  saw.  This 
conformation  explains  the  peculiar  property  of  felting  possessed 
by  wool. 

Fig.  4. — Silk  fibre,  formed  of  two  juxtaposed  tubes  united  by  a  longi- 
tudinal partition. 

Figs.  6,  t,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12.— Different  apparatus  for  alkalimetric, 
chlorometric,  and  hydrotiraetric  tests.  We  have  explained  the 
use  of  these  various  instruments  in  detail,  Chap.  YII.,  §§  1,  2,  8, 
4,  5,  6. 

'  The  diameter  of  hemp  fibres  varies  from      to      of  a  millimetre  (joVo  o 
to  joVoo         inch)  ;  those  of  flax  from      to      of  a  millimetre  (jodooo 
To^o  0  0  inch).    The  cells  of  flax  are  not,  like  those  of  hemp,  provided 

with  a  small  appendage. 


278  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


PLATE  II. 

Cylmders  used  in  Paper- Making  for  Triturating  the  Pulp. 
(Different  Systems.) 

Figs.  1,  2. — General  disposition  of  the  machinery  for  two  cylinders, 
moved  by  a  water-wheel ;  velocity  of  the  wheel,  8  revolutions  a 
minute ;  velocity  of  the  cylinder,  from  180  to  200  revolutions. 

This  transmission  of  power  by  means  of  pinions  presents  the 
defect  of  jarring,  as  the  wooden  teeth  of  the  great  wheel  R  become 
worn. 

The  arrangement  of  the  engines  is  not  to  be  imitated.  The 
heater  should  be  put  in  place  of  the  washer,  as  the  direction  of 
the  motion  tends  to  raise  the  cylinder  of  the  beating  engine. 
This  might  result  in  a  breakage  of  the  teeth  or  blades  of  the 
plate,  and  it  would  also  be  difficult  to  obtain  a  thorough  commi- 
nution of  the  pulp. 

a.  Machinery,  with  pinions  for  two  cylinders. 

h.  Washing  engine. 

c.  Beating  or  refining  engine. 

d.  Water-wheel. 

Fig.  3. — Washing  engine  constructed  entirely  of  cast  iron.  (In  the 
case  of  a  beating  engine,  the  only  difference  is  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  blades  of  the  cylinder  and  plate.) 

The  cistern  is  entirely  of  cast  iron,  and  furnished  with  washing 
drums. 

The  cylinder  is  lowered  upon  the  plate  by  means  of  levers, 
worked  by  a  perpendicular  screw,  revolving  through  a  fixed  nut, 
furnished  with  cogs  (a  screw-jack). 

The  blades  of  the  cylinder  are  steel,  arranged  by  twos  for  the 
washing,  and  threes  for  the  beating  engine. 

Fig.  5. — Bronze  plate  of  the  washer. 

Fig.  6. — Bronze  plate  of  the  heater. 

Fig.  7. — Mixed  engine  with  cistern  of  cast  iron  and  wood,  steel  plate, 
and  furnished  with  strainers  and  washing  drums.  This  arrange- 
ment is  well  suited  to  soiled  rags  requiring  abundant  washing. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


279 


Fig.  8. — (Old  System.)  Old-fashioned  rag-engine  with  wooden  cis- 
tern and  flat  plate.  The  blades  are  serrated.  We  give  this 
arrangement  in  order  to  show  the  progress  made  since  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century.  The  power  was  transmitted  by  lantern 
wheels.  Sand  traps  and  washing  drums  were  not  then  known. 
At  the  present  day  when  wooden  cisterns  are  adopted,  the  staves 
are  arranged  in  an  elliptic  curve  as  with  cast-iron  engines,  and 
these  are  tightened  with  iron  hoops  held  by  screw  bolts. 

Fig.  10.— Scale  of  Figs.  1  and  2,  O.OOT  metre  to  the  metre  (3.28  ft.). 

Fig.  11.— Scale  of  Figs.  3  to  9,  0.03  metre  to  the  metre  (3.28  ft.). 


PL  A  TE  III. 

Representation  of  an  Improved  Paper- Machine.    (Large  Model.) 

2.10  metres  (6.88  ft.)  broad.    Scale  of  0.025  metre  to  1  metre 
(3.28  ft.). 

Four  wet  presses  and  eight  drying  cylinders  with  disconnected 
felts.  The  only  fault  to  be  found  with  this  machine,  the  very 
finest  we  know  of,  is  that  of  having  too  long  a  web.  The  drying 
apparatus  may  be  considered  as  a  model.  The  drying  taking 
place  gradually  renders  the  paper  softer  and  smoother,  and  even 
gives  it  a  somewhat  velvety  appearance,  an  indication  of  incipient 
satining.  The  suction  boxes  are  exhausted  by  means  of  air 
pumps. 

a.  Paper. 

I.  Felt. 

c.  Paper. 

d.  Paper. 


280 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


PLATE  lY. 

Paper-3Iahing  hy  Hand — Vats  and  Accessories — Differ en\^  Apparatus 
serving  for  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  hy  Hand. 

Fig.  1. — General  plan  of  two  vats. 

Fig.  2. — Wooden  vats  heated  directly  by  steam. 

Fig.  3  — Arrangement  of  two  .wooden  vats  heated  directly  by  steam. 
The  posts  of  paper  may  be  pressed  either  by  a  screw  or  hydraulic 
press. 

a.  Position  of  the  vatraan. 
h.  Position  of  the  coucher. 

c.  Position  of  the  layman. 

d.  Position  of  the  assistant. 

e.  Couching  table. 

f.  Stand  for  the  felts. 

g.  Bench  for  holding  the  posts  on  leaving  the  press. 

h.  Tray  for  carrying  the  wet  posts  to  the  press. 

Fig.  3. — Drainage  stay. 
a.  Mould. 

Fig.  4. — Representation  of  an  easel  or  inclined  bench. 
Fig.  5. — Bridge  over  the  vat. 

a.  Bracket  serving  to  support  the  mould  when  shoved  along 
the  bridge. 

Fig.  6. — Disposition  of  the  support  for  the  coucher.  Two  iron  up- 
rights, let  into  the  floor,  support  the  screen,  which  serves  as  a 
rest  for  the  coucher. 

Fig.  T. — Rod  for  stirring  the  material  in  the  vat. 

Fig.  8. — Yats  for  making  bank-note  paper,  heated  by  a  water  bath. 
A  pair  of  copper  vats,  heated  by  a  water  bath  for  making  bank- 
note paper.  This  arrangement  is  indispensable  for  preserving 
tne  pureness  of  this  paper,  as  steam  used  in  heating  introduces 
dirt  proceeding  from  the  pipes,  joints,  &c. 

These  are  square  vats,  lined  on  the  inside  with  zinc,  and  fur- 
nished at  the  lower  part  with  stopcocks  for  washing.  Their  size 
and  that  of  the  copper  basins  depends  entirely  upon  that  of  the 
paper  to  be  made. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


281 


Fig.  9. — Angles  of  the  wooden  vat,  showing  the  manner  of  joining. 

Pig.  10. — Cast-iron  support,  serving  to  sustain  the  vertical  copper 
pipes,  pierced  with  holes  at  their  lower  extremities. 

Fig.  11. — Junction  of  the  pipes  and  stopcocks,  allowing  the  vats  to 
be  heated  separately. 

Fig.  12, — Lifters  for  hanging  the  wet  leaves  on  the  tribbles  in  the 
drying-room. 

Fig.  13.— Scale  of  0.03  metre  to  the  metre  (3.28  ft.). 


PLATE  Y. 

Moulds  and  Watermarks. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3. — Mould  for  making  paper.  Representation  of  a  mould 
of  laid  wire. 

Fig.  1. — Upper  surface. 

Fig.  3. — Under  surface  of  the  mould,  showing  the  arrangement  of 
the  ribs.  The  size  of  the  mould  naturally  varies  with  that  of  the 
paper.  The  thickness  of  the  deckel  varies  very  little,  and  it 
should  be  as  light  as  possible  to  lessen  the  labor  of  the  workman. 

Figs.  4,  5,  6,  1,  8. — Details  of  the  method  of  joining  the  stock  of  the 
frame,  and  the  ribs  with  the  stock.  Fig.  8  shows  the  wire  cloth 
fastened  to  the  frame  by  means  of  very  fine  brass  wires.  The 
laid  wire  moulds  have  either  a  single  or  a  double  cloth  ;  this  last 
is  best  suited  to  strong  papers. 

Fig.  9. — Joints  of  the  deckel  made  with  double  rabbets.  To  be  well 
done  they  require  a  skilful  workman. 

Figs.  10,  11,  12. — Different  kinds  of  watermark. 

Fig.  10. — Simple  watermark  made  by  cutting  out  a  sheet  of  brass. 
This  watermark  is  that  adopted  by  the  French  Government  for 
the  paper  of  playing  cards. 

Fig.  11. — Another  simple  but  more  difficult  watermark  than  the  pre- 
ceding. The  couching  of  the  lower  part  of  the  talons  and 
thunderbolt  presents  difficulties.  To  compensate  for  this,  how- 
ever, the  effect  is  handsomer. 


282  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

r>G.  12. — Design  reproducing  the  watermark  of  a  Turkish  bank-note. 
All  the  dark  lines  are  depressed  and  the  paper  shows  the  design 
when  looked  at  by  transmitted  light.  In  this  respect  it  is  a 
shaded  watermark.  It  could  equally  well  be  light  by  cutting 
out  a  copper  leaf  according  to  the  outline. 

Fig.  13. — Isolated  light  letters,  very  generally  used  for  bank  note 
paper,  letters  of  credit,  &c. 

Fig.  14. — Letter  of  the  actual  size.  The  striated  edges  represented 
facilitate  the  operation  of  couching. 

Fig.  15. — Shaded  watermark  formed  by  a  rectangular  depression  in 
the  wire  cloth.  The  letters,  isolated  and  simple,  are  sewed  to  the 
bottom  and  appear  in  light  upon  the  paper. 

Fig.  16. — Section  of  fig.  15  in  the  direction  c  d. 

Fig.  1Y. — Light  watermark  with  joined  letters.  In  this  manner  a 
regularity  in  the  words  is  obtained,  which  it  is  difiicult  to  arrive 
at  by  means  of  isolated  lel:ters,  requiring  to  be  delicately  fastened. 
This  kind  of  watermark  may  also  be  placed  in  the  depression  of 
fig.  15. 

Fig.  18. — Shaded  letters  obtained  by  means  of  undulations  in  the 
wire  cloth.  These  kinds  of  watermarks,  the  richest  in  use,  are 
reserved  for  the  paper  of  bank  notes  of  high  value.  The  impres- 
sion on  the  wire  cloth  is  effected  by  means  of  two  dies  analogous 
to  those  employed  for  stamping  metals;  other  shaded  letters  are 
also  made.  The  watermarked  parts  are  therefore  only  moulds 
in  which  the  pulp  is  deposited  and  produce  their  effect  upon  the 
paper  by  the  difference  in  the  thickness  of  the  pulp  at  different 
points. 

Fig.  19. — Section  of  fig.  18  in  the  direction  a  h. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


283 


PLATE  YI. 

General  Plan  of  a  Paper-3I{ll. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3. — Plan  of  a  paper-mill  according  to  M.  Planche. 

A.  Entrance  for  receiving  crude  rags,  weighing-room. 

B.  Elevator  for  crude  rags. 
G.  Store-room. 

D.  Hatchway  for  lowering  crude  rags  to  the  sorting  and 

cutting-room. 

E.  Gratings  for  sorting  and  cutting. 

F.  Hatchway  for  lowering  cut  rags  to  the  store-room  of 

sorted  rags. 

G.  Store-room  for  sorted  rags. 

H.  Dusting-machine  and  rag-cutter. 

I.  Washing  and  boiling  apparatus. 
J.  Turbine  room. 

K.  Reservoir  of  water. 

L.  Machinery  of  the  rag-engines. 

M.  Washing  engines. 

N.  Bleaching  apparatus  for  liquid  chlorine. 

0.  Bleaching  room  for  chlorine  gas. 

P.  Retorts  for  the  preparation  of  chlorine  gas. 

Q,  Store  cases  for  the  pulp. 

R.  Beating  engines. 

aS'.  Room  of  the  paper-machine. 

T.  Finishing-room. 

U.  Office. 

V.  Store-room. 

X.  Quarters  of  the  superintendent  and  employes. 
a,  Sizing-room. 

h.  Caldrons  for  melting  over  broken  leaves,  parings,  &c. 

c.  Ventilator  for  the  paper-machine. 

d.  Store-room  for  felts,  wire,  cloth,  straps,  colors,  &c. 

e.  Steam-boilers. 

/.  Work-shop  for  repairs,  forge,  joiner's  shop,  &c. 

g.  Baths. 

h.  Water-closets. 

1.  Sheds,  stables,  and  quarters  for  the  workmen. 
m.  Bridge. 


284 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


We  shall  criticize  this  plan  as  follows  :  The  store-room  for  cut 
rags  is  too  small  and  badly  placed  on  the  ground  floor  ;  it,  as  well  as 
the  boiling  apparatus,  should  have  been  on  the  second. 

The  room  for  the  paper  machine  is  in  the  main  building. 

The  quarters  for  the  superintendent  and  employes  are  in  the  mill 
itself. 

The  steam  boilers  and  chimney  contiguous  to  the  main  building 
would  be  better  placed  at  a  distance. 

It  seems  to  us  preferable  to  adopt  a  shorter  building  with  an  addi- 
tional story,  and  a  parallel  or  perpendicular  wing  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  paper-machine. 

Figs.  4,  5. — Plan  of  a  mill  with  three  paper-machines,  by  the  same 
author.  The  arrangements  are  the  same  as  in  the  previous  plan, 
only  on  a  larger  scale. 

There  are  12  washing  and  12  beating  engines,  with  6  bleach- 
ing vats.  One  of  the  machines  is  provided  with  an  apparatus 
using  animal  size.  » 

Fig.  6. — General  plan  of  a  paper-mill  with  two  machines  at  Kraut- 
hausen : — 

A.  First  paper-machine. 

B.  Second  paper-machine. 

C.  Water  wheel. 

D.  Turbine  wheel. 
^.  Machinery. 

M  Steam  engine. 

G.  Caldrons. 

H.  Bleaching-chest  and  store-room  for  pulp. 
/.  Satining  machine. 

J.  Packing-room  and  warehouse. 
K.  Office. 

L.  Superintendent's  room. 
M.  Stair-drum. 
Store-room. 

The  building  H  E  is  thus  subdivided  :  On  the  ground  floor, 
machinery  ;  on  the  floor  above,  rag  engines ;  and  on  the  third  floor 
under  the  roof,  store-room  for  rags. 

Building  B :  on  the  ground  floor,  paper-machine ;  on  the  second, 
finishing  room ;  on  the  third  floor  under  the  roof,  store-room  for 
rags  and  reservoir. 

We  have  in  figs.  7,  8,  14,  different  combinations  convenient  for 
adoption  in  the  case  of  a  mill  with  one  or  two  machines. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


285 


Fig.  T. — Building  parallel  with  the  water-conrse. 

On  the  ground  floor,  machinery  and  store  chests ;  on  the  second, 
rag-engines,  boiling,  bleaching,  and  sizing  apparatus ;  on  the 
third  floor,  rag-room,  store-room  for  cut  rags  and  duster ;  under 
the  roof,  store-room  for  crude  rags. 

The  two  perpendicular  lines  represent,  one  the  room  for  the 
paper-machine,  the  other  the  finishing-room. 

This  arrangement  allows  us  to  add  another  machine  symmetri- 
cally placed  in  regard  to  the  first. 

The  arrangement  of  fig.  8  may  be  equally  well  adopted. 

The  finishing-rooms  form  opposite  sides  of  the  hollow  square. 
As  each  machine  often  makes  different  qualities  of  paper,  there 
is  no  objection  to  having  these  two  rooms  separate. 

Fig.  9. — Modification  of  the  preceding.  The  finishing-room  opposite 
the  paper-machine  ;  on  the  second  floor  satining  machine,  presses 
and  calenders.  This  arrangement  is  open  to  the  objection  of 
necessitating  the  transportation  of  the  paper  across  the  court- 
yard after  leaving  the  machine. 

Fig.  10. — Machinery  and  finishing-rooms  parallel  with  the  main 
building.  This  arrangement  is  convenient  when  our  available 
space  is  limited. 

Fig.  11. — Main  building  perpendicular  to  the  current ;  machine  and 
finishing-rooms  at  opposite  sides  of  the  square.  For  two  ma- 
chines. 

Fig.  12. — Modification  of  the  preceding  for  one  or  two  machines. 

Fig.  13  — Arrangement  for  a  single  machine.  The  finishing-room 
may  be  continuous  with  that  of  the  machine.  Too  costly  work 
in  the  foundation  for  the  water  wheel  may  result  from  this  plan, 
unless  the  banks  are  sufficiently  high. 

Fig.  14. — The  two  machine-rooms  parallel  with  the  main  building  ; 
the  finishing-rooms  on  opposite  sides  of  a  square.  This  arrange- 
ment is  only  suitable  when  space  is  wanting.  Mills  built  across 
water-courses  are  more  rare  than  those  established  upon  one 
shore. 

The  different  out-buildings  for  bleaching  with  chlorine  gas, 
workshops,  steam-boilers,  office  and  quarters  of  the  superinten- 
dent, who  should  command  a  view  of  the  entire  mill,  must  be 
grouped  as  convenience  and  the  site  of  the  mill  may  require. 


I 


PI  6. 


INDEX. 


Acid  bath,  52 

Ackerman's  fluid  for  rendering  papers 

and  stuffs  impermeable,  175 
Action  of  the  atmosphere  in  sizing,.  160 
Alkali,  caustic,  use  of,  in  manufacture 
of  wood  pulp,  264 
proportion  required  in  boiling,  39 
saving,  266 
Alkalimetrical  test,  208 
Alkaline  matters  used  in  boiling,  37 
Alum  diminishes  the  solubility  of 
size,  160 
mixed  with  glue,  for  sizing,  160 
too  much  not  to  be  used  in  clari- 
fying size,  167 
Alums,  223 

Alumina,  sulphate,  224  , 
Amaranth,  93 

American  Wood-Paper  Co.,  263 
Ammonia,  use  of,  205 
Analyses  of  various  fuels,  230 
Animal  size,  advantages  of,  23 
Annexed  building,  259 
Antichlorine,  222 
use  of,  53 

where  chlorine  remains,  69 
Apparatus  for  paper  by  hand,  280 
Arabs  inventors  of  paper,  18 
Arsenious  acid,  214 
Atmosphere,  action  of,  in  sizing,  160 

Bank-note  paper,  126 

Bark  for  manufacture  of  paper,  197 

Barley  straw,  200 

Beating,  69 

duration  of,  70  • 

engines,  70 
Beet  pulp,  198 
Belgian  paper,  203 
Belgium,  classification  of  rags  in,  27 
Berthe  &  Grevenich  establish  a  paper 

machine,  19 
Berthollet,  19 

Binoxide  of  manganese,  220 
Black,  92,  94 
Bleaching,  49 


Bleaching — 

and  draining  the  pulp,  apparatus 

for,  250 
by  electricity,  57 
completion  of,  53 
importance  of  study  of,  66 
in  Holland  and  Flanders,  58 
Le  Normand  on,  57 
light  in,  62 

materials  required  in,  24 

of  cloths,  58 

of  paper  pulp,  64 

rags  in  the  rag-engine,  46 

Robiquet  on,  57 

tub,  52 

two  methods  of,  50 

waste  from,  57 
"  Bleu  Guimet,"  77,  78 
Blue,  77,  89 

and  red  combinations,  93 
Blue  papers,  88 
Blueing,  85,  86 
Boards,  manufacture  of,  269 
Boiled  rags,  table  of,  42 
Boilers  for  wood  pulp,  264 
Boiling  apparatus,  247 

materials  required  in,  24 

rags,  36 
Bombycian  paper,  17 
Braconnot's  discovery,  183 

preparation  of  vegetable  size,  71 
Brazil  wood,  81,  90 
Brick  color,  94 
Broom,  Spanish,  194 
Brown,  84 

paper  colored  by  oxide  of  iron,  161 
Brunner's  method,  78 
Buff,  83,  94 

Building,  remarks  in  reference  to,  257 
Burette,  alkalimetrical,  209 

Calenders,  102 
Callendering,  100 

Canson's  method  for  blue  paper,  87 
on  sizing  in  the  pulp,  187 
Carbonate  of  lime,  38  220 


288 


INDEX. 


Carbonate — 

of  soda,  38 
Carbonic  acid,  51 
Carnation  pink,  93 

Caustic  alkali,  use  of,  in  manufacture 

of  wood  pulp,  264 
Centrifugal  refiners,  use  of,  in  Ame- 
rica, 71 
Cliaucliard  machine,  202 
Chemical  analysis  of  materials  em- 
ployed in  paper-making,  204 
of  old  rags,  3  92 
examination  of  paper  sized  in  the 

pulp,  232 
test  of  cotton  rags,  204 
of  linen  rags,  204 
Chestnut  color,  94 

China,  manufacture  of  paper  in,  273 
Chloride  of  lime,  50,  53,  217 
in  bleaching,  65. 
preparation  of,  54 
of  sodium,  53 
Chlorides,  discoloring,  49 
Chlorinated  liquid,  52 
Chlorine  bath,  51 

disengagement  of,  51 
escape  of,  56 
gas,  49,  54 

Bertholet's  mode  of  prepar- 
ing, 54 
use  of,  205 
in  papers  not  well  washed,  53 
liquid,  50 

proportion  of,  used,  56 

use  of,  in  excess,  21 
Chlorometric  tests,  213 
Chlorometrical  table,  216 
Chocolate  color,  94 
Cinnamon  color,  94 
City  rags,  28 
Clarification  of  size,  167 
Classification  of  cut  rags,  31 

of  paper,  131 
Cloths,  bleaching  of,  58 
Coarse  and  dirty  rags,  boiling,  39 
Colored  papers,  85 

Dingler's  method,  90 
Coloring  materials,  24,  226 
test  of,  226 

matters,  76 
Combustibles,  analysis  of,  228 
Comparison  between  machine  and 

hand-made  papers,  128 
Commercial  value  of  various  kinds 

of  rags,  26 
Composition  of  pulp,  66 
Copper-plate  paper,  162 
Coquelicot  color,  94 
Corn  stalks,  200 


Cotton,  193 

fibres,  277 

fibrillse  of,  204 

rags,  chemical  test  of,  204 
Couching,  French  and  Swiss  methods 

of,  113 
Country  rags,  28 
Cut  rags,  classification  of,  31 
Cutting  careful,  advantage  of,  33 
Cutting  rags,  29 

Crusaders  introduce  paper  into  France, 
18 

Cylinders  used  in  paper-making,  278 

D'Arcet's  size,  71,  72,  185 
Dark  Gray,  84 
Deckle,  105 
Didot,  Leger,  18 

Dingler's  method  with  colored  papers, 

90 

Dirty  rags,  boiling,  39 
Discoloration  of  pulp,  process  of,  51 
Disengagement  of  the  chlorine  in 

bleaching,  51 
Donkin,  19 
Drainage,  47 

Drainer,  Lamothe-Ferrand,  49,  55 

turbine,  49 
Drying  after  sizing,  146,  159 

cylinders,  99 

duration  of,  118 
Dusters,  245 
Dusting  rags,  34 

Dutch  and  French  methods  of  drying 
after  sizing,  146 
sizing,  174 

Electricity,  bleaching  by,  57 
Elementary  bodies,  table  of,  238 
Engine-rooms,  register  in,  47 
English  papers,  the  best  sized  with 

gelatine,  23 
Escape  of  chlorine,  56 
Espartero,  195 

Establishment  of  a  paper-mill,  255 
Evaporating  and  calcining  house,  266 
Examination  of  limes,  211 

of  manganese,  218 

of  papers,  230 
Extracting  gelatine,  136 

Fawn,  94 
Felts,  109 

new,  soft,  114 
Fermentation  facilitates  trituration, 
163 

in  bleaching,  59 
Fermented  rags,  table  of,  41 
Fibres,  diameter  of,  203 


INDEX. 


289 


Fibres — 

of  hemp,  flax,  cotton,  wool,  and 
silks,  microscopic  representa- 
tions of,  277 
preservation  of  the  strength  of, 
194 
Finishing,  99 

hand-made  paper,  125 
Finishing-machines,  253 
Flame  color,  94  " 
Flax,  193 

fibres,  277 
Fordas  and  Gelis  on  spots  in  paper, 
235 

France,  paper-machines  in,  19 

the  first  to  make  paper  by  ma- 
chinery, 18 

Fuel,  227 

analysis  of,  228 

Fuels,  table  of  analyses  of  various,  230 

Further  remarks  on  sizing,  133 

Gauge,  105 

Gelatine  and  alum  size,  176 
Gelatine,  English  papers  sized  with,  23 

extracting,  136 
Gelatinous  precipitate  in  clarifying 

size,  168 
General  considerations,  258 
General  plan  of  a  paper-mill,  283 
Germany,  classification  of  rags  in,  26 
Glutinous  materials  uniting  rag  fibres, 

163 

Gold  color,  94 

Grain  of  paper,  softening,  117 
Gray,  84 
Green,  84,  93 
Green  sulphate,  161 

Half  stuff,  reduction  to,  44 
Hand-made  paper,  finishing,  125 
Hand,  manufacture  of  paper  by,  105, 
111 

paper-making  by,  280 
Hard  pulp,  drainage  of,  48 
Hay  for  paper,  200 
Hemp,  194 
Hemp  fibres,  277 

diameter  of,  204 
Herring,  Richard,  referred  to,  96 
History  of  paper-making,  17 
Horse-dung  for  paper,  201 
Hydrochloric'  acid,  53 
Hydrometer,  use  of,  in  ascertaining 
degree  of  concentration  of  size,  169 
Hypochlorite  of  lime,  50 

Impermeability  imparted  to  paper  by 
size,  161 

19 


Impermeable,  size  to  render  paper,  169 
Important  observations  upon  sizing, 

150 

Improved  paper-machines,  279 
Indigo  blue,  91 

Japan,  manufacture  of  paper  in,  273 
Jessup  &  Moore's  paper-mills,  268 
Jonquil  color,  94 

Kaolin,  225 

composition  of  washed,  225 
in  sizing,  73,  74,  76 
introduction  of,  20 
in  wood  paper,  203 
purification,  225 

to  ascertain  the  pureness  of,  225 

use  of,  in  size,  225 
Keen  &  Burgess'  patent,  267 
Knotter,  the,  98 
Kochu-tree,  273 
Koteng-plant,  273 

Laboratory,  instruments  and  appara- 
tus, 238 
Ladd  &  Keen's  patent,  263 
Laid  or  woven  wire,  gauze  of,  105 
Lamothe-Ferrand  drainer,  49,  55 
Leaves  for  manufacture  of  paper,  197 

raising,  115 
Le  Normand  on  bleaching,  57 

on  sizing,  133 
Lifting,  117 
Light  coffee  color,  94 
Light  in  bleaching,  62 
Lilac,  93 

Lime,  hypochlorite  of,  50 
use  of,  163 

and  soda  in  boiling,  37 
Limes,  examination  of,  211 
poor,  213 

preferred  in  paper- making,  211 
rich,  213 

substances  met  with  in,  211 
Linen  and  cotton  fibres,  distinguishing 
of,  205 

Linen  rags,  chemical  test  of,  204 
Liquid  chlorine,  21,  50 
Lumps,  96 

Lye,  boiling  hay  in,  201 

effects  of  too  weak,  38 
Lyes  in  bleaching,  effect  of,  on  rags,  28 

Machine  and  hand-made  papers,  com- 
parison, 138 
Madder,  red,  91 
Main  building,  259 
Maize-stalks,  200 


290 


INDEX. 


Manganese,  clilorometric  degrees  of 
samples  of,  219 
examination  of,  218 
tests  of  samples  of,  221 
value  of,  220 
Manufacture,  29 

of  bank-note  paper,  and  water- 
marked paper  in  general,  126 
of  boards,  269 

of  paper  from  wood  in  tlie  United 

States,  263 
of  paper  from  vat  or  by  band,  105 
Marigold  color,  94 

Materials,  chemical  analysis  of,  204 

of  a  laboratory,  238 

table  of  textile,  192 
Microscopic  examination  of  rags,  204 

representations  of  fibres  of  hemp, 
flax,  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  278 
Mineral  substances,  24 
Moisture  in  bleaching,  63 

in  rags,  28 
Mongolfier's  experiments  with  size,  170 
Motive  power,  241 
Mould,  105 

Moulds  and  water-marks,  281 
Mucosity  in  fermenting- vat,  162 

Nasturtium  color,  94 
Nitric  and  hypouitric  acids  as  tests  of 
phormium  tenax,  205 

Olives,  93 

Operation  of  sizing,  144 
Orange,  94 

Oxide  of  iron,  brown  paper  colored  by, 
161 

Oxygenated  muriatic  acid  and  potassa 
in  bleaching,  65 

Paper,  bombycian,  17 

by  machinery,  France  the  first  to 
make,  18 

classification  of,  131 

derivation  of  wood,  17 

examination  of,  230 

from  wood,  manufacture  of,  263 

importance  of  washing,  53 

impregnated  with  alum,  160 

manufacture  of,  in  China  and  Ja- 
pan, 273 

of  fermented  pulp,  sizing  of,  171 

of  plantain  leaves,  20 

of  rags,  earliest,  18 

tarred,  20 
Paper-machine,  improved,  279 
Paper-machines,  251 

in  France,  19 

the  work  of,  96 


Paper-making  by  hand,  280 
Paper-making,  history  of,  17 

in  France,  19 

statistics  of,  21 
Paper-mill,  general  plan,  283 

remarks  upon  the  establishment 
of,  255 

working  stock  of,  241,  254 
Paper-pulp,  bleaching  of,  64 
Papyrus,  17 
Payen's  sizing,  176 
Pernambuco  wood,  81 
Persulphate  of  iron  mixed  with  gela- 
tine, 161 
Pink  red,  80 

Plates,  description  of,  278 
Pomegranate  color,  94 
Post,  108 

Potashes,  alkalinity  of  several,  210 
Potash,  test  of,  208 
Potassa,  analysis,  208 

and  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  in 
bleaching,  65 

as  a  test  of  linen,  205 
Potato-starch  size,  173 
Proportions  of  wood  and  rag  pulp  in 

certain  papers,  203 
Prussian  blue  for  coloring  pulp,  224 
Pulp,  composition  of,  66 

papers  colored  in,  88 

ridding  of  chlorine,  20 

sizing  in,  178 
Pulp-sized  paper,  examination  of,  232 
Pulp-sizing,  first,  71 
Purple,  93 

Quality  of  rags,  28 

Quires,  making  up  into,  104 

Rag-cutters,  243 
Rags,  24,  26 

boiling  and  rotting,  40 

chemical  test  and  microscopic 
examination  of,  204 

city,  28 

classification  of,  26 
commercial  value  of,  26 
country,  28 
earliest  paper  of,  18 
maceration  in  small  mills,  162 
natural  moisture  in,  28 
quality  of,  28 
rotting  of,  39 
sorting  and  cutting,  29 
substitute  for,  20 
value  of,  28 
varieties  of,  26 
wet,  27 
Raising  the  leaves,  115 


INDEX. 


291 


Raw  materials,  24 
Reagents,  239 

Reams,  making  up  into,  104 
Red,  89,  90 

and  yellow  combinations,  93 
Reduction  to  half  stuff,  44 
Refining  or  beating,  69 
Residue,  47 
Resinous  soap,  72 
Retting,  204 
Ribs,  105 

Rice,  Chinese  size,  172 
River  water,  clarification  of,  171 
Robert  the  earliest  patentee  of  ma- 
chine paper,  18 
Robiquet  on  bleaching,  57 
Rolling-press,  100 

Roots  for  manufacture  of  paper,  198 
Rose-paper,  88 
Rye-straw,  200 

for  wrappers,  20 

Saddlemakers'  size,  164 
Sand-boxes,  96 
Sand-traps,  20 

Satining  the  paper,  99,  100,  102 
Screw  and   hydraulic   processes  of 

drainage,  48 
Sea-wrack,  paper  of,  20 
Seeds  for  manufacture  of  paper,  198 
Silk  fibres,  277 
Size,  Ackerman's,  169 

alone,  not  rendering  paper  imper- 
meable to  ink,  160 

and  its  preparation,  164 

best,  paper  not  always  rendered 
impermeable  by,  164 

Chinese,  of  rice,  172 

clarification  of,  167 

D'Arcet's,  185 

decoction  never  clear,  166 

dried  by  slow  evaporation,  161 

impermeability  which  it  imparts 
to  paper,  161 

methods  of  preparing,  165 

mixed  with  alum,  160 

of  gelatine  and  alum,  176 

saddlemakers',  164 

skins  of  young  animals  produce 
the  whitest,  164 

strength  of,  165 

weak,  169 

white,  from  ox-hide,  164 
Sizing,  70,  71 

appendix  on,  158 
comparison  of  two  methods,  189 
compositions  for,  74,  75,  76 
further  remarks  on,  133 
hand-made  paper,  119 


Sizing — 

important  observations  on,  150 

in  pulp,  178 

Canson's  method,  187 

materials  for,  24 

operation  of,  144 

theories  of,  175 

vegetable,  20 
Sizing-room,  134 
Smoothing  or  rolling  press,  100 
Soap  with  size,  169 
Soda,  test  of,  208 

and  lime  in  boiling,  37 
Sodas,  alkalinity  of  different,  211 
Sorting  and  cutting  of  rags,  29 
Spanish  brown,  194 

•use  of.  in  England,  196 
Starch,  225 

hygrometric  condition  of,  226 

potato,  size,  173 
Statistics  of  paper-making,  21 
Steam,  high  and  low  pressure,  in  boil- 
ing, 38 
Straw  and  rag  pulp,  199 
Straw,  bleaching,  199 
Straw,  bottoms  of  caldrons  covered 
with,  166 

maceration  with  lime,  199 

papers,  198 

pulp,  use  of,  with  wood  pulp,  267 
Strength  of  size,  165 
Substances  suitable  for  making  paper, 
181 

Suction-pumps,  20 
Sulphate  of  alumina,  224 

of  soda,  53 
Sulphuric  acid,  209 

as  a  test  of  cotton,  205 

use  of,  in  disengagement  of  chlo- 
rine, 51 
Sunlight  in  bleaching,  62 

Tarred  paper,  20 

rope,  201 
Tests,  chlorometric,  213 
Textile  materials,  table  of,  192 
Theories  of  sizing,  175 
Tobacco  color,  94 
Tribbles,  118 
Turbine  drainer,  49 

wheel,  241 

Unboiled  and  unbleached  pulp,  203 
Unfermented  pulp,  size  for  paper  made 
with,  169 

United   States,  statistics  of  paper- 
making  in,  22 

Vat,  manufacture  of  paper  from,  105 


292 


INDEX. 


Vats,  108,  280 

cleaning,  116 
Vegetable  kingdom,  products  of,  for 
raw  materials,  24 

size,  71 

sizing,  20 
Vermilion,  89 
Violet,  93 

Voelter's  macMne  for'  wood  pulp,  202 

Washing  apparatus,  246 

and  beating  engines,  247 
and  bleaching,  difference  between, 
62 

and  cleansing,  60 

of  papers,  importance  of,  53 

rags,  36 

Washing-drums  to  rag  engines,  20 
Washing-machine,  use  of,  61 
Waste  from  bleaching,  57 
of  material,  196 

table  of,  in  washing,  boiling,  and 
reduction  to  half  stuff,  47 
Water-marked  paper,  manufacture  of, 
126 

Water-marks,  103,  281 
Waters,  purifying  of,  207 
test  of,  206 


Watt  &  Burgess'  patent  for  wood  pulp, 

263 
Weight,  97 

Well  water,  examination  of  specimens 

of,  171 
Web,  endless,  97 

rags,  27 
Wheat-straw,  200 
White  limes,  213 

Winter,  papers  dyed  in  the  pulp  should 

not  be  made  in,  96 
Wood  fibres,  force  necessary  to  sepa- 
rate, 203 

Fremy's  experiments  on,  202 

in  Belgian  paper,  203 

paper  from,  263 

paper  of,  20 
Wood  paper,  201 
Wood  pulp,  boilers  for,  264 

and  straw  pulp,  267 
Wool  fibres,  277 

Working  stock  of  a  paper-mill,  241, 254 
Work  of  the  paper-machine,  96 

Yellow,  82,  89 

Yellow  rust  in  paper,  236 


THE  END. 


CATALOGUE 

OF 

PRACTICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS, 

PUBLISHEI*  BY 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHER, 
ISTo.  406   W^X.3Sr-CJT  STREET, 
PHILADKLPHIA. 


Any  of  the  Books  comprised  !n  this  Catalogue  will  be  sent  by  maH, 
free  of  postage,  at  the  publication  price, 

My  New  ais'D  Enlarged  Catalogue,  93  pages  Svc,  witli  full  descriptions 
of  Books,  will  be  sent,  free  of  postage,  to  any  one  wlio  will  favor  me 
with  his  address. 


A  RMENGAUD,  AMOUEOUX,  AND  JOHNSON.—THE  PRACTICAL 
DRAUGHTSMAN'S  BOOK  OF  INDUSTRIAL  DESIGN,  AND 
MACHINIST'S  AND  ENGINEER'S  DRAWING  COMPANION: 

Forming  a  complete  course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and 
Architectural  Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud 
the  elder,  Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and 
Industry,  Paris,  and  MM.  Armengaud  the  younger  and  Amou- 
roux,  Civil  Engineers.  Rewritten  and  arranged,  with  addi- 
tional matter  and  plates,  selections  from  and  examples  of  the 
most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism  of  the  day. 
By  William  Johnson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Editor  of  "The 
Practical  Mechanic's  Journal."  Illustrated  by  50  folio  steel 
plates  and  50  wood-cuts.    A  new  edition,  4to.        .  $10  00 

A  SLOT.— A  COMPLETE  GUIDE  FOR  COACH  PAINTERS. 

'  Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Arlot,  Coach  Painter;  lats 
Master  Painter  for  eleven  years  with  M.  Ehrler,  Coach  Manufac- 
turer, Paris.    With  important  American  additions  .       .    $1  25 

A  BROWSMITH.— PAPER-HANGER'S  COMPANION: 

A  Treatise  in  which  the  Practical  Operations  of  the  Trade  are 
Systematically  laid  down:  with  Copious  Directions  Prepara- 
tory to  Papering;  Preventives  against  the  ElFect  of  Damp  on 
Walls;  the  Various  Cements  and  Pastes  adapted  to  the  Seve- 
ral Purposes  of  the  Trade ;  Observations  and  Directions  for 
the  Panelling  and  Ornamenting  of  Rooms,  &c.  By  James 
Arrowsmith.    12mo.,  cloth     .       ,       ,       .       .    $1  25 


2 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


-pAIRD.— THE  AMERICAIT  COTTON  SPINNER,  AND  MANA- 
^    GER'S  AND  CARDER'S  GUIDE  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning;  giving  the  Iflmen- 
sions  and  Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calcula- 
tions, etc. ;  with  notices  of  recent  Improvements :  together 
with  Rules  and  Examples  for  making  changes  in  the  sizes  and 
numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn.  Compiled  from  the  papers  of 
the  late  Robert  H.  Baikd.    12mo.  .       .       .    $1  50 

-pAKER.— LONG-SPAN  RAILWAY  BRIDGES : 

Comprising  Investigations  of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Advantages  of  the  various  Adopted  or  Proposed  Type 
Systems  of  Construction;  with  numerous  Formulae  and  Ta- 
bles.   By  B.  Baker.    12mo  $2  GO 

T3AKEWELL.— A  MANUAL  OF  ELECTRICITY— PRACTICAL  AND 
THEORETICAL : 

By  F.  C.  Bakewell,  Inventor  of  the  Copying  Telegraph.  Se> 
cond  Edition.  Revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated  by  nume- 
rous engravings.    12mo.    Cloth  .... 

•DEANS  — A  TREATISE  ON  RAILROAD  CURVES  AND  THE  LO- 
^    CATION  OF  RAILROADS  : 

By  E.  W.  Beans,  C.  E.    12mo.      ...  $2  00 

-pLENKARN.— PRACTICAL  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  WORKS  EXE- 
CUTED  IN  ARCHITECTURE,  CIVIL  AND  MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING,  AND  IN  ROAD  MAKING  AND  SEWER- 
ING: 

To  which  are  added  a  series  of  practically  useful  Agreements 
and  Reports.  By  John  Blenkarn.  Illustrated  by  fifteen 
large  folding  plates.    8vo  $9  00 

miNN.— A  PRACTICAL  WORKSHOP  COMPANION  FOR  TIN, 
SHEET-IRON,  AND  COPPER-PLATE  WORKERS  : 

Containing  Rules  for  Describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns 
used  by  Tin,  Sheet-iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers  ;  Practical 
Geometry ;  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the 
Weight  of  Metals,  Lead  Pipe,  etc.;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Cir- 
cumferences of  Circles ;  Japans,  Varnish«es,  Lackers,  Cements, 
Compositions,  etc.  etc.  By  Leroy  J.  Blinn,  Master  Me- 
chanic.   With  over  One  Hundred  Illustrations.  12mo.    $2  50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


3 


pOOTH. -MARBLE  WORKER'S  MANUAL: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  gene- 
'  ral,  their  Cutting,  Working,  and  Polishing ;  Veneering  of 
Marble  ;  Mosaics  ;  Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble, 
Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts,  Secrets,  etc.  etc.  Translated 
from  the  French  by  M.  L.  Booth.  With  an  Appendix  con- 
cerning American  Marbles.    12mo.,  cloth        .       .    $1  50 

■pOOTH  AND  MORFIT.— THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  CHEMISTRY, 
PRACTICAL  AND  THEORETICAL : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy,, 
Geology,  Medicine,  and  Pharmacy.  By  James  C.  Booth, 
Melter  and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of 
Applied  Chemistry  in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by 
Campbell  Morfit,  author  of  ''Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc. 
Seventh  edition.  Complete  in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978 
pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts  and  other  illustrations.  $5  00 

pOWDITCH.— ANALYSIS,  TECHNICAL  VALUATION,  PURIEI- 

^   CATION,  AND  USE  OF  COAL  GAS : 

By  Rev.  W.  R.  Bowditch.  Illustrated  with  wood  engrav- 
ings.   8vo  $6  50 


B 


OX.— PRACTICAL  HYDRAULICS : 

A  Series  of  Rules  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  Engineers,  etc. 
By  Thomas  Box.    12mo  $2  50 

■pUCKMASTER.— THE  ELEMENTS  OF  MECHANICAL  PHYSICS  : 

By  J.  C.  BucKMASTEE,  late  Student  in  the  Government  School 
of  Mines  ;  Certified  Teacher  of  Science  by  the  Department  of 
Science  and  Art;  Examiner  in  Chemistry  and  Physics  in  the 
Royal  College  of  Preceptors ;  and  late  Lecturer  in  Chemistry 
and  Physics  of  the  Royal  Polytechnic  Institute.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  engravings.    In  one  vol.  12mo.         ,    $1  50 


B 


ULLOCK.— THE  AMERICAN  COTTAGE  BUILDER  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans,  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to 
to  $20,000  for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warm- 
ing, Ventilation,  Drainage,  Painting,  and  Landscape  Garden- 
ing. By  John  Bullock,  Architect,  Civil  Engineer,  Mechani- 
cian, and  Editor  of  "The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,"  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  In  one  vol. 
8vo  §3  5(? 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGtm. 


IDTJLLOCK.  —  THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  AND 
^    BUILDING : 

For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machin- 
ists, Engineers,  and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  John  Bullock, 
author  of  "The  American  Cottage  Builder."  Illustrated  by 
250  engravings.    In  one  volume  8vo.        .       .       .    $3  50 

■pURGH.— PRACTICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  LAND  AND  MA- 
^    RINE  ENGINES : 

Showing  in  detail  the  Modern  Improvements  of  High  and  Low 
Pressure,  Surface  Condensation,  and  Super-heating,  together 
with  Land  and  Marine  Boilers.  By  N.  P,  Burgh,  Engineer. 
Illustrated  by  twenty  plates,  double  elephant  folio,  with  text. 

$21  00 

•pURGH.— PRACTICAL  RULES  FOR  THE  PROPORTIONS  OF 
^    MODERN  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS  FOR  LAND  AND  MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 

By  N.  P.  Burgh,  Engineer.  12mo.  ,  .  .  $2  00 
-pURGH.— THE  SLIDE-VALVE  PRACTICALLY  CONSIDERED : 

By  N.  P.  Burgh,  author  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Sugar  Machinery," 
"Practical  Illustrations  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines,"  "A 
Pocket-Book  of  Practical  Rules  for  Designing  Land  and  Ma- 
rine Engines,  Boilers,"  etc.  etc,  etc.    Completely  illustrated. 

12mo  $2  00 

YRN.— THE  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  BREWER : 

Or,  Plain,  Accurate,  and  Thorough  Instructions  in  the  Art  of 
Brewing  Beer,  Ale,  Porter,  including  the  Process  of  making 
Bavarian  Beer,  all  the  Small  Beers,  such  as  Root-beer,  Ginger- 
pop,  Sarsaparilla-beer,  Mead,  Spruce  beer,  etc.  etc.  Adapted 
to  the  use  of  Public  Brewers  and  Private  Families.  By  M.  La 
Fayette  Byrn,  M.  D.    With  illustrations.    12mo.       $1  25 

pYR?^.— THE  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  DISTILLER  : 

Comprising  the  most  perfect  and  exact  Theoretical  and  Prac- 
tical Description  of  the  Art  of  Distillation  and  Rectification 
including  all  of  the  most  recent  improvements  in  distilling 
apparatus ;  instructions  for  preparing  spirits  from  the  nume- 
rous vegetables,  fruits,  etc.  ;  directions  for  the  distillation  and 
preparation  of  all  kinds  of  brandies  and  other  spirits,  spiritu- 
ous and  other  compounds,  etc.  etc. ;  all  of  which  is  so  simpli- 
fied that  it  is  adapted  not  only  to  the  use  of  extensive  distil- 
lers, but  for  every  farmer,  or  others  who  may  wish  to  engage 
in  the  art  of  distilling  By  M.  La  Fatettk  Byrn,  INI.  D. 
With  numerous  engravings.    In  one  volume,  12mo.       $1  50 


B 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE- 


5 


DYRNE.— POCKET  BOOK  FOR  RAILROAD  AND  CIVIL  ENGI- 
NEERS : 

Containing  New,  Exact,  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out 
Railroad  Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the 
Staking  out  of  work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cut- 
tings ;  Embankments ;  Earth-work,  etc.  By  Oliver  Byrne. 
Illustrated,  ISmo,,  full  bound     .        .        .        .        .      $1  75 

DYRNE.— THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  ARTISAN,  MECHANIC, 
^    AND  ENGINEER  : 

By  Oliver  Byrne.    Illustrated  by  185  Wood  Engravings.  8vo. 

$5  00 

TDYRNE.— THE  ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS  OF  PRACTICAL  ME- 
CHANICS : 

For  Engineering  Students,  based  on  the  Principle  of  Work. 
By  Oliver  Byrne.  Illustrated  by  Numerous  Wood  Engrav- 
ings, 12mo  $3  63 

DYRNE.— THE  PRACTICAL  METAL-WORKER'S  ASSISTANT: 
Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry ;  the  Arts  of  Working  all 
Metals  and  Alloys ;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel ;  Hardening  and 
Tempering ;  Melting  and  Mixing ;  Casting  and  Founding ; 
Works  in  Sheet  Metal ;  the  Processes  Dependent  on  the 
Ductility  of  the  Metals ;  Soldering ;  and  the  most  Improved 
Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- AVorkers.  With  the 
Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to  Manufactu- 
ring Processes ;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from  the 
Works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plumier,  Napier,  and 
others.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  A  New,  Revised,  and  improved 
Edition,  with  Additions  by  John  Scoffern,  M.  B  ,  William  Clay, 
Wm,  Fairbairn,  F.  R.  S.,  and  James  Napier.  With  Five  Hun- 
dred and  Ninety-two  Engravings ;  Illustrating  every  Branch 
of  the  Subject.    In  one  volume,  8vo.    652  pages     .    $7  00 

■pYRNE.— THE  PRACTICAL  MODEL  CALCULATOR: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work, 
Naval  Architect,  Miner,  and  Millwright.  By  Oliver  Byrne. 
1  volume,  8vo.,  nearly  600  pages      .       .       .       .    $4  50 

•pEMROSE.— MANUAL  OF  WOOD  CARVINU  :  With  Practical  Il- 
lustrations for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and  Selected  de- 
signs. By  William  Bemrose,  Jr.  With  an  Introduction  by 
Llewellyn  Jewitt,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  Illustrations.  4to., 
cloth  $3  00 


6 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


■DAIED.— PEOTECTION  OF  HOME  LABOK  AND  HOME  PRO- 
^   SUCTIONS  NECESSARY  TO  THE  PROSPEEITY  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  FARMER : 

By  Henry  Carey  Baird.    8vo.,  paper     .       .       .       .  10 

DAIRD.— THE  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  PRODUCERS,  AND  THE 
^   WRONGS  OF  BRITISH  FREE  TRADE  REVENUE  REFORM. 

By  Henry  Carey  Baird.    (1870)  ....  5 

AIRD.— SOME  OF  THE  FALLACIES  OF  BRITISH-FREE-TRADE 
HEVENUE-REFORM. 

Two  Letters  to  Prof.  A.  L.  Perry,  of  Williams  College,  Mass.  By 
Henry  Carey  Baird.    (1871.)    Paper    ....  5 

PAIRD.—STANDARD  WAGES  COMPUTING  TABLES : 


B 


B 


An  Improvement  in  all  former  Methods  of  Computation,  so  ar- 
ranged that  wages  for  days,  hours,  or  fractions  of  hours,  at  a  spe- 
cified rate  per  day  or  hour,  may  be  ascertained  at  a  glance.  By 
T.  Spangler  Baird.    Oblong  folio  $5  00 

AUERMAN.— TREATISE  ON  THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON. 

Illustrated.    12mo  $2  60 


B 


-piCKNELLlS  VILLAGE  BUILDER. 

^    66  large  plates.    4to.  $10  00 

"piSHOP.— A  HISTORY  OF  AMERICAN  MANUFACTURES : 

From  1608  to  1866  ;  exhibiting  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Mechanic  Arts  and  Manufactures,  from  the  Earliest  Colonial 
Period  to  the  Present  Time  ;  By  J.  Leander  Bishop,  M.  D.,  Ed- 
ward Yoraa,  and  Edwin  T.  Freedley.    Three  vols.  8vo., 

$10  00 

OX.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  HEAT  AS  APPLIED  TO 
THE  USEFUL  ARTS : 

For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  etc.  By  Thomas  Box,  au- 
thor of  "Practical  Hydraulics."  Illustrated  by  14  plates,  con- 
taining 114  figures.    12mo  $4  25 

QABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE  : 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  the  Newest  and  Most 
Elegant  Styles  of  Furniture.  Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large 
and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates.    In  one  volume,  oblong 

$5  00 

riHAPMAN.— A  TREATISE  ON  ROPE-MAKING : 

As  practised  in  private  and  public  Rope-yards,  with  a,  Description 
of  the  Manufacture^  Rules,  Tables  of  Weights,  etc.,  adapted  to  the 
Trade  ;  Shipping,  Mining,  Railways,  Builders,  etc.  By  Robert 
Chapman.    24rao  >       .       .       .    $1  50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


7 


pRAIK.— THE  PRACTICAL  AMERICAN  MILLWRIGHT  AND 
^  MILLER. 

Comprising  the  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics,  Me- 
chanism, and  Motive  Power,  Hydraulics  and  Hydraulic 
Motors,  Mill-dams,  Saw  Mills,  Grist  Mills,  the  Oat  Meal  Mill, 
the  Barley  Mill,  Wool  Carding,  and  Cloth  Fulling  and  Dress- 
ing, Wind  Mills,  Steam  Power,  &c.  By  David  Craik,  Mill- 
wright. Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  engravings,  and  five 
folding  plates.    1  vol.  8vo.  .       .       .       .    $5  00 

riAMPIN.— A  PRACTICAL.  TREATISE  ON  MECHANICAL  EN- 
^  GINEERING: 

Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools, 
Workshop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture 
of  Steam-engines,  etc.  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Ann- 
lysis  of  Iron  and  Iron  Ores.  By  Francis  Campin,  C.  E.  Tc 
which  are  added.  Observations  on  the  Construction  of  Steam 
Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces  used  for  Smoke  Preven- 
tion ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R.  Armstrong,  C.  E., 
and  John  Bourne.  Rules  for  Calculating  the  Change  Wheels 
for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel-cutting 
Machine.  By  J.  La  Nicca.  Management  of  Steel,  including 
Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking,  and 
Expansion.  And  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  Ede. 
8vo.   Illustrated  with  29  plates  and  100  wood  engravings. 

$6  00 

pAMPlN.— THE  PRACTICE  OF  HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD, 
^    IVORY,  SHELL,  ETC.; 

With  Instructions  for  Turning  such  works  in  Metal  as  may  be 
required  in  the  Practice  of  Turning  Wood,  Ivory,  etc.  Also 
an  Appendix  on  Ornamental  Turning.  By  Francis  Campin  , 
■with  Numerous  Illustrations,  12mo.,  cloth        .       .    $3  00 

pAPRON  DE  DOLE.— DUSSAUCE.— BLUES  AND  CARMINES  OF 
^  INDIGO. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  every  Commercial 
Product  derived  from  Indigo.  By  Felicien  C apron  de  Dole. 
Translated,  with  important  additions,  by  Professor  H.  DuS' 
SAUCE.  12mo. 


8 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


QAREY.— THE  WORKS  OF  HENRY  C.  CAREY: 

CONTRACTION  OR  EXPANSION?  REPUDIATION  OR  RE- 
SUMPTION ?  Letters  to  Hon.  Hugh  McCulloch.    8vo.  38 
FINANCIAL  CRISES,  their  Causes  and  Effects.    Svo.  paper 

25 

HARMONY  OF  INTERESTS;   Agricultural,  Manufacturi»g, 
and  Commercial.    8vo.,  paper  .       .       .       .       .    $1  00 
Do.  do.  cloth        .       .       .    f  1  50 

LETTERS  TO  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Paper  $1  00 

MANUAL  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  Condensed  from  Carey's 
"Principles  of  Social  Science."  By  Kate  McKean.  1  vol. 
12mo  $2  25 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS:  comprising  "Harmony  of  Inter- 
ests," "Money,"  "Letters  to  the  President,"  "French  and 
American  Tariffs,"  "Financial  Crises,"  "The  Way  to  Outdo 
England  •without  Fighting  Her,"  "Resources  of  the  Union," 
"The  Public  Debt,"  "Contraction  or  Expansion,"  "Review 
of  the  Decade  1857 — 'G7,"  "Reconstruction,"  etc.  etc.  1  vol. 
8vo.,  cloth  $4  50 

MONEY:  A  LECTURE  before  the  N.  Y.  Geographical  and  Sta- 
tistical Society.    8vo.,  paper    .....  25 

PAST,  PRESENT,  AND  FUTURE.    8vo.  .       .       .    $2  50 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.    3  volumes  8vo.,  cloth 

^10  00 

REVIEW  OF  THE  DECADE  1857— '67.    8vo.,  paper  50 
RECONSTRUCTION:  INDUSTRIAL,  FINANCIAL,  AND  PO- 
LITICAL.   Letters  to  the  Hon.  Henry  Wilson,  U.  S.  S.  8vo 
paper       ......  .       .  50 

THE  PUBLIC  DEBT,  LOCAL  AND  NATIONAL.  How  to 
provide  for  its  discharge  while  lessening  the  burden  of  Taxa- 
tion. Letter  to  David  A.  Wells,  Esq.,  U.  S.  Revenue  Commis- 
sion.   8vo.,  paper    .......  25 

THE  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNION.  A  Lecture  read,  Dec. 
1865,  before  the  American  Geographical  and  Statistical  So- 
ciety, N.  Y.,  and  before  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Social  Science,  Boston        ...  50 

THE  SLAVE  TRADE,  DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN;  Why  it 
Exists,  and  How  it  may  be  Extinguished.  12mo.,  cloth    $1  5(? 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


9 


LETTERS  ON  INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT.  (1867.) 
Paper  50 

REVIEW  OF  THE  FARMERS' QUESTION.  (1870.)  Paper  25 

RESUMPTION!  HOW  IT  MAY  PROFITABLY  BE  BROUGHT 
AROUT.    (1869.)    8vo.,  paper       ....  60 

REVIEW  OF  THE  REPORT  OF  HON.  D.  A.  WELLS,  Special 
Commissioner  of  the  Revenue.    (1869.)    Svo.,  paper  50 

SHALL  WE  HAVE  PEACE?  Peace  Financial  and  Peace  Poli- 
tical. Letters  to  the  President  Elect.  (1868.)  8vo.,  paper  50 

THE  FINANCE  MINISTER  AND  THE  CURRENCY,  AND 
THE  PUBLIC  DEBT.    (1868.)    Svo.,  paper  .       .  50 

THE  WAY  TO  OUTDO  ENGLAND  WITHOUT  FIGHTING 
HER.  Letters  to  Hon.  Schuyler  Colfax.  (1865.)  Svo.,  paper 

m  00 

WEALTH!  OF  WHAT  DOES  IT  CONSIST  ?  (1870.)  Paper  25 

riAMUS.— A  TREATISE  ON  THE  TEETH  OF  WHEELS : 

Demonstrating  the  best  forms  which  can  be  given  to  them  for  the 
purposes  of  Machinery,  such  as  Mill-work  and  Clock-work.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  M.  Camus.  By  John  I.  Hawkins. 
Illustrated  by  40  plates.    Svo  $.3  00 

riOXE.— MINING  LEGISLATION. 

A  paper  read  before  the  Am.  Social  Science  Association.  By 
EcKLEY  B.  CoxE.   Paper  20 

nOLBTJRN.— THE  GAS-WORKS  OF  LONDON: 

Comprising  a  sketch  of  the  Gas-works  of  the  city,  Process  of 
Manufacture,  Quantity  Produced,  Cost,  Profit,  etc.  By  Zerah 
CoLBURN.    8vo.,  cloth  75 

nOLBURN.— THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimat- 
i;ig  its  Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construc- 
tion and  Management.  By  Zerah  Colburn.  Illustrated.  A 
new  edition.    12mo.   $1  25 

riOLBURN  AND  MAW.— THE  WATER- WORKS  OF  LONDON: 
Together  with  a  Series  of  Articles  on  various  other  Water- 
works.   By  Zerah  Colburn  and  W.  Maw.    Reprinted  from 
''Engineering."    In  one  volume,  Svo.      .  .    $4  00 

■HAGUERREOTYPIST  AND  PHOTOGRAPHER'S  COMPANION: 

^    12mo.,  cloth    .  $1  25 


10 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD^S  CATALOGUE. 


-QIRCKS.— PERPETUAL  MOTION : 

Or  Search  for  Self-Motive  Power  during  the  ITth,  18tb,  and 
19th  centuries.  Illustrated  from  various  authentic  sources  in 
Papers,  Essays,  Letters,  Paragraphs,  and  numerous  Patent 
Specifications,  with  an  Introductory  Essay  by  Henry  Dircks, 
C.  E.  Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings  of  machines. 
12mo.,  cloth  $3  50 

TJIXOK.— THE  PRACTICAL  MILLWRIGHT'S  AND  ENGINEER'S 
^    GUIDE : 

Or  Tables  for  Finding  the  Diameter  and  Power  of  Cogwheels  ; 
Diameter,  Weight,  and  Power  of  Shafts  ;  Diameter  and  Strength 
of  Bolts,  etc.  etc.   By  Thomas  Dixon.  12mo.,  cloth.    $1  50 

JJUNCAN.— PRACTICAL  SURVEYOR'S  GUIDE: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person,  of 
common  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of 
a  teacher.    By  Andrew  Duncan.   Illustrated.    !12mo.,  cloth. 

^1  25 

TjUSSAUCE.— A  NEW  AND  COMPLETE  TREATISE  OH  THE 
^    ARTS  OF  TANNING,  CURRYING,  AND  LEATHER  DRESS- 
ING: 

Comprising  all  the  Discoveries  and  Improvements  made  in 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States.  Edited  from 
Notes  and  Documents  of  Messrs.  Sallerou,  Grouvelle,  Duval, 
Dessables,  Labarraque,  Payen,  Ren^,  De  Fontenelle,  Mala- 
peyre,  etc.  etc.  By  Prof  H.  Dussauce,  Chemist,  Illustrated 
by  212  wood  engravings.  8vo.  -  .  .  .  .  $10  00 
TJUSSAUCE— A  GENERAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 
^  OF  SOAP,  THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL : 

Comprising  the  Chemistry  of  the  Art,  a  Description  of  all  the  Raw 
Materials  and  their  Uses.  Directions  for  the  Establishment  of  a 
Soap  Factory,  with  the  necessary  Apparatus,  Instructions  in  the 
Manufacture  of  every  variety  of  Soap,  the  Assay  and  Determination 
of  the  Value  of  Alkalies,  Fatty  Substances,  Soaps,  etc.  etc.  By 
Professor  H.  Dussauce.  With  an  Appendix,  containing  Ex- 
tracts from  the  Reports  of  the  International  Jury  on  Soaps,  as 
exhibited  in  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867,  numerous 
Tables,  etc.  etc.    Illustrated  by  engravings.    In  one  volume  8vo. 

of  over  800  pages  $10  00 

TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  FABRICATIOI^ 
^    OF  MATCHES,  GUN  COTTON,  AND  FULMINATING  POW- 
DERS. 

By  Professor  IT. -Dussauce.    12mo.         .       .       .    $3  00 


HEXRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


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USSAUCE.— A  PEACTICAL  GUIDE  FOK  THE  PERFUMEE : 
Being  a  Kew  Treatise  on  Perfumery  the  most  favorable  to  the 
Beauty  witliout  being  injurious  to  the  Health,  comprising  a 
Description  of  the  substances  used  in  Perfumer}^  the  Form- 
ulge  of  more  than  one  thousand  Preparations,  such  as  Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed  Oils,  Tooth  Powders,  Waters,  Extracts,  Tinc- 
tures, Infusions,  Vinaigres,  Essential  Oils,  Pastels,  Creams, 
Soaps,  and  many  new  Hygienic  Products  not  hitherto  described. 
Edited  from  Notes  and  Documents  of  Messrs.  Debay,  Lunel, 
etc.  Withadditions  by  Processor  H.  DussAucE,  Chemist.  12mo. 

00 

lUSSAUCE.—A  GENESAL  TEEATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 
OF  YltlEcrlR,  THE3SETIGAL  AITD  PRACTICAL. 

Comprising  the  various  methods,  by  the  slow  and  the  quick  pro- 
cesses, with  Alcohol,  Wine,  Grain,  Cider,  and  Molasses,  as  wel\ 
as  the  Fabrication  of  Wood  Vinegar,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  Dussaijce. 
i2mo.  S.5  0n. 

UPLAIS.— A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISTILLATIOIT 
AKD  MANUFACTURE  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS : 

From  the  French  of  M.  Duplais.  Translated  and  Edited  by  M. 
McKennie,  M  D.  Illustrated  by  numerous  large  plates  and  wood 
engravings  of  the  best  apparatus  calculated  for  producing  the 
finest  products.    In  one  vol.  royal  8vo.  $10  00 

This  is  a  treatise  of  the  highest  scientific  m«rit  and  of  the 
greatest  practical  value,  surpassing  in  these  respects,  as  well  as 
in  the  variety  of  its  contents,  any  similar  volume  in  the  English 
language. 

,E  GRAFF.— THE  GEOMETRIC .\L  STAIR-BUILDERS'  GUIDE: 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all 
its  necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  22  Steel 
Engravings  :  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  princi- 
ples of  Practical  Geometry.    By  Snio}?  De  Graff,  Architect. 

4to.  $5  00 

YER  Ai^D  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION  : 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Co- 
lors, on  the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles 
and  fabrics  now  in  existence;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and 
plain  Directions  for  Preparing,  Washiug-off,  and  Finishing  the 
fioods.    In  one  vol.  12mo-       .       .       .       .       .    §1  25 


12 


HENRY  Carey  baird's  catalogue. 


•pASTON.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  STREET  OR  HORSE- 
POWER  RAILWAYS : 

Their  Location,  Construction,  and  Management ;  with  General 
Plans  and  Rules  for  their  Organization  and  Operation ;  toge- 
ther with  Examinations  as  to  their  Comparative  Advantages 
over  the  Omnibus  System,  and  Inquiries  as  to  their  Value  for 
Investment;  including  Copies  of  Municipal  Ordinances  relat- 
ing thereto.  By  Alexander  Easton,  C.  E.  Illustrated  by  23 
plates,  8vo.,  cloth  $2  00 

pORSYTH.— BOOK  OF  DESIGNS  FOR  HEAD-STONES,  MURAL, 
*•     AND  OTHER  MONUMENTS  : 

Containing  78  Elaborate  and  Exquisite  Designs.    By  Forsyth. 

4to.,  cloth  $5  00 

This  volume,  for  the  beauty  and  variety  of  its  designs,  has 
never  been  surpassed  by  any  publication  of  the  kind,  and  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  marble-worker  who  does  fine  monumental 
work. 

pAIRBAIRN.— THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  MECHANISM  AND  MA- 
^     CHINERY  OF  TRANSMISSION  : 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Couplings  of  Shafts,  and 
Engaging  and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  William  Fairbairn, 
Esq.,  C.  E.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  G.  S.,  Corresponding  Member 
of  the  National  Institute  of  France,  and  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Turin  ;  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  etc.  etc.  Beau- 
tifully illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one  volume  12mo. 

$2  50 

pAIRBAIRN.—PRIME-MOVERS : 

Comprising  the  Accumulation  of  Water-power;  the  Construc- 
tion of  Water-wheels  and  Turbines;  the  Properties  of  Steam; 
the  Varieties  of  Steam-engines  and  Boilers  and  Wind-mills. 
By  William  Fairbairn,  C.  E.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  G.  S.  Au- 
thor of  "Principles  of  Mechanism  and  the  Machinery  of  Trans- 
mission." With  Numerous  Illustrations.  In  one  volume.  (la 
press.) 

niLBAET.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  BANKING: 

^    By  .James  William  Gilbart.    To  Avhich  is  added:  TnB  Na- 
tional Bank,  Act  as  now  ii?  force.    8vo.       .       .    $4  50 

ESNER.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  COAL,  PETROLEUM, 
AND  OTHER  DISTILLED  OILS. 

By  Abraham  Gesner,M.  D.,  F.  G.  S.  Second  edition, revised 
and  enlarged.  By  George  Weltden  Gesker,  Consulting 
Chemist  and  Engineer.    Illustrated.    8vo.     .       .  50 


13 


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OTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET  MAKERS : 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.  Il- 
lustrated by  twenty-three  large  and  beautifully  engraved 
plates.    Oblong  ^3  00 

RANT.— BEET-ROOT  SUGAR  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE 

BEET: 

By  E.  B.  Grant.    12mo  $1  25 

REGORY.— MATHEMATICS  FOR  PRACTICAL  MEN  ; 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics, 
and  Civil  Engineers.  By  Olinthus  Gregory.  8vo.,  plates, 
cloth  $3  00 


G 


HRISWOLD.— RAILROAD  ENGINEER'S  POCKET  COMPANION. 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and 
Angles,  Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary 
Tables  for  Engineers;  also  the  art  of  Levelling  f:om  Prelimi- 
nary Survey  to  the  Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Ex- 
pressly for  the  Young  Engineer,  together  with  Numerous  Valu- 
able Rules  and  Examples.    By  W.  Griswold.    12mo.,  tucks. 

$1  75 

UETTIER.— METALLIC  ALLOYS : 

Being  a  Practical  Guide  to  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Pro- 
perties, their  Preparation,  Composition,  and  Uses.  Translated 
from  the  French  of  A.  Guettier,  Engineer  and  Director  of 
Founderies,  author  of  "La  Fouderie  en  France,"  etc.  etc.  By 
A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  In  one  volume,  12mo. 

$3  00 

JJATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture,    By  a  Practical 

Hatter.    Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  &c.,  8vo. 

$1  25 

TTAY.— THE  INTERIOR  DECORATOR  : 

The  Laws  of  Harmonious  Coloring  adapted  to  Interior  Decora- 
tions :  with  a  Practical  Treatise  on  House-Painting.  By  D. 
R.  Hay,  House-Painter  and  Decorator.  Illustrated  by  a  Dia- 
gram of  the  Primary,  Secondary,  and  Tertiary  Colors.  ]2mo. 


H 


UGHES.— AMERICAN  MILLER  AND  MILLWRIGHT'S  AS- 
SISTANT : 

By  Wm.  Carter  Hughes.  A  new  edition.  In  one  volnme, 
12mo   ....  50 


14  HENBT  CAREY  BATED'S  CATALOGUE. 


gUNT— THE  PRACTICE  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

By  Robert  Hunt,  Vice-President  of  tlie  Photographic  Society, 
London.  With  numerous  illustrations.    12mo.,  cloth  .  75 


JURST.— A  HAND-BOOK  FOR  ARCHITECTURAL  SURVEYORS  : 

Comprising  Formulas  useful  in  Designing  Builders'  work,  Table 
of  Weights,  of  the  materials  used  in  Building,  Memoranda 
connected  with  Builders'  work,  Mensuration,  the  Practice  of 
Builders'  Measurement,  Contracts  of  Labor,  Valuation  of  Pro- 
perty, Summary  of  the  Practice  in  Dilapidation,  etc.  etc.  By 
J.  F.  IIuRST,  C.  E.    2d  edition,  pocket-book  form,  full  bound 

$2  50 


ISVIS.— RAILWAY  PROPERTY: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  jManagement  of  Railways ; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Mana- 
gers, Officers,  and  Agents.  By  John  B.  Jervis,  late  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  &c. 
One  Yol.  12mo.,  cloth       .       .       .       .  .    $2  00 


•OHNSON.— A  REPORT  TO  THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  ON  AMERICAN  COALS : 

Applicable  to  Steam  Navigation  and  to  other  purposes.  By 
Walter  R.  Johnson.  With  numerous  illustrations.  607  pp. 
8vo.,  .       .  ...  $10  00 


■OHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS, 
LIMESTONES,  AND  MANURES 

By  J.  W.  F.  Johnston.    12mo  35 

pENE.— A  HAND-BOOK  OF  PRACTICAL  GAUGING, 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Dis- 
tillation, desci'ibing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom 
House  for  ascertaining  the  strength  of  wines.  By  James  B. 
Keene,  of  E.  M.  Customs.    8vo.     .       .  .    $1  25 


HESKY  CAREY  BATED' S  CATALOGUE, 


15 


^NTISH.— A  TREATISE  ON  A  BOX  OF  INSTRUMENTS, 

And  the  Slide  Kule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Lo- 
garithms, including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measur-' 
ing  of  Timber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances. 
By  Thomas  Kejjtish.    In  one  volume.    12mo.  .       .    $1  25 


OBELL.—ERNI.— MINERALOGY  SIMPLIFIED: 

A  short  method  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  by 
means  of  simple  Chemical  Experiments  in  the  Wet  Way. 
Translated  from  the  last  German  Edition  of  F.  Vo:^  Kobell, 
with  an  Introduction  to  Blowpipe  Analysis  and  other  addi- 
tions. By  Henri  Erni,  M.  D.,  Chief  Chemist,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  author  of  "Coal  Oil  and  Petroleum."  In  one 
volume.    12mo.        .       .    '  .  .       .  $2  50 


ANDRIN.— A  TREATISE  ON  STEEL : 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical Work^ 
ing,  and  Use,  By  M.  H.  C.  Landein,  Jr.,  Civil  Engineer. 
Translated  from  the  French,  with  Not^s,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer 
and  the  Martin  Processes  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the 
Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  States  Commissioner  to 
the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.    12mo.  .       .    $3  00 


TARKIN.— THE  PRACTICAL  BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER'S 
GUIDE. 

A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals 
and  their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improve^ 
ments  in  the  Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Pro- 
cess, etc.  etc.  By  James  Larkin,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass 
Foundry  Department  in  Beany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Pcnn  Works, 
Philadelphia,  Fifth  edition,  revised,  with  extensive  Addi- 
tions.   In  one  volume,    12mo.  $2  25 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGRJE. 


EAVITT.— EACTS  ABOUT  PEAT  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OF  FUEL: 

With  Remarks  upon  its  Origia  and  Composition,  the  Localities 
m  which  it  is  found,  the  Methods  of  Preparation  and  Manu 
facture,  and  the  various  Uses  to  which  it  is  applicable ;  toge- 
ther with  many  other  matters  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Inte* 
rest.  To  which  is  added  a  chapter  on  the  Utilization  of  Coal 
Dust  with  Peat  for  the  Production  of  an  Excellent  Fuel  at 
Moderate  Cost,  especially  adapted  for  Steam  Service.  By  H, 
T.  Leavitt.  Third  edition.  12mo.  .  .  .  $1  75 
EROUX— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFAC- 
TURE OF  WORSTEDS  AND  CARDED  YARNS : 
Translated  from  the  French  of  Charles  Leboux,  Mechanical 
Engineer,  and  Superintendent  of  a  Spinning  Mill.  By  Dr  H. 
Paine,  and  A.  A.  Fesquet.   Illustrated  by  12  large  plates.  In 

one  volume  8vo  $5  00 

^  ESLIE  (MISS).— COMPLETE  COOKERY: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss 
Leslie.  60th  edition.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  New  Receipts.  In  1  vol.  12mo.,  cloth  .  .  $1  50 
ESLIE  (MISS).  LADIES'  HOUSE  BOOK : 

a  Manual  of  Domestic  Economy.  20th  revised  edition.  12mo., 
cloth  $1  25 

ESLIE  (MISS).— TWO  HUNDRED  RECEIPTS   IN  FRENCH 
COOKERY. 

12mo.      .       .•  50 

lEBER.— ASSAYER'S  GUIDE : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for 
the  Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the 
Ores  of  all  the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and 
Alloys,  and  of  Coal,  etc.  By  Oscar  M.  Lieber.    12mo.,  cloth 

$1  25 

OVE.— THE  ART  OF  DYEING,  CLEANING,  SCOURING,  AND 
FINISHING : 

On  the  most  approved  English  and  French  methods;  being 
Practical  Instructions  in  Dyeing  Silks,  Woollens,  and  Cottons, 
Feathers,  Chips,  Straw,  etc.;  Scouring  and  Cleaning  Bed  and 
"Window  Curtains,  Carpets,  Rugs,  etc.;  French  and  English 
Cleaning,  etc.  By  Thomas  Love.  Second  American  Edition,  to 
which  are  added  General  Instructions  for  the  Use  of  Aniline 
Colors,    8vo  6  00 


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AIN  AND  BROWN.— QUESTIONS  ON  SUBJECTS  CONNECTED 
WITH  THE  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE : 

And  Examination  Papers ;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
TnoMAS  J.  Maix,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  Thomas  Brown,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.     12mo.,  cloth  $150 

AIN  AND  BROWN.— THE  INDICATOR  AND  DYNAMOMETEE  5 

With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.  By 
Thomas  J.  Main,  M.  A.  F.  R.,  Ass't  Prof.  Royal  Naval  College, 
Portsmouth,  and  Thomas  Brown,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  En- 
gineer, R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.  Illustrated.  From 
the  Fourth  London  Edition.    8vo.   ...  .    $1  50 

AIN  AND  BROWN— THE  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

By  Thomas  J.  Main,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at 
Royal  Naval  College,  and  Thomas  Brown,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 
Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.     Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval  College. 
Authors  of  "Questions  Connected  with  the  Marine  Steam-En- 
gine," and  the  '*  Indicator  and  Dynamometer."    "With  numerous 
Illustrations.    In  one  volume  8vo.   .       .       .       .       .    $5  00 

ARTIN.— SCREW-CUTTING  TABLES,  FOR  THE  USE  OF  ME- 
CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 
Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the 
Threads  of  Screws  of  any  required  Pitch ;  with  a  Table  for 
Making  the  Universal  Gas-Pi^^e  Thread  and  Taps.    By  W.  A. 
Martin,  Engineer.    8vo.  .......  50 

ILES— A  PLAIN  TREATISE  ON  HORSE-SHOEING. 
With  Illustrations.   By  William  Miles,  author  of  "  The  Horse's 
Foot" 

OLESWORTH.— POCKET-BOOK  OF  USEFUL  FORMULA  AND 
MEMORANDA  FOR  CIVIL  AND  MECHANICAL  EN3INEERS. 

By  Guilford  L.  Molesworth,  Member  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway. 
Second  American  from  the  Tenth  London  Edition.  In  one 
volume,  full  bound  in  pocket-book  form  .  .  .  .  $2  00 
CORE.— THE  INVENTOR'S  GUIDE  : 

Patent  Office  and  Patent  Laws  :  or,  a  Guide  to  Inventors,  and  a 
Book  of  Reference  for  Judges,  Lawyers,  Magistrates,  and  others. 

By  J  G.  Moore.    12mo.,  cloth  $1  25 

APIER.— A  MANUAL  OF  ELECTRO-METALLURGY : 
Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Processes. 
By  James  Napier.    Fourth  American,  from  the  Fourth  London 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.    Illustrated  by  engravings.  In 
one  volume,  Svo.      .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .    $2  00 


18  PIENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


IP 


APIER.— A  SYSrEM  OF  CHEMISTKY  APPLIED  TO  DYEIN?f: 

By  James  Napier,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised 
Edition,  completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the 
Science,  including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors.  By  A.  A. 
Fesquet, -Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition 
of  J867,  from  the  Reports  of  the  International  Jury,  etc.  Illus- 
trated.   In  one  volume  8vo.,  400  pages    .       .       .       .    $5  00 

WBERY.  — GLEANINGS  FEOM  ORNAMENTAL  ART  OF 
EVERY  STYLE; 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1S51  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  one 
hundred  exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  ex- 
amples.   By  Robert  Newbery.    4to  $15  00 

JJICHOLSON.— A  MANUAL  OF  THE  ART  OF  BOOK-BINDING: 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  diflferent  Branches  of  Forward- 
ing, Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book- 
edges  and  Paper.  By  Jajies  B.  Nicholson.  Illustrated.  12mo. 
cloth        ....   $2  25 

]n"ORRIS.— A  HAND-BOOK  FOR  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  AND 
MACHINISTS: 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing 
Locomotives ;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves ;  Tables  of  Squares, 
Cubes,  Areas,  etc.  etc.  By  Septimus  Norris,  Civil  and  Me- 
chanical Engineer.    New  edition.    Illustrated,  12mo.,  cloth 

$2  00 

■pjYSTROM.  —  ON   TECHNOLOGICAL  EDUCATION   AND  THE 
CONSTRUCTION  OF  SHIPS  AND  SCREW  PROPELLERS : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  John  W.  Nystrom,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised  with 
additional  matter.    Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  12mo. 

$2  50 

NEILL.— A  DICTIONARY  OF  DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINT- 
ING: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  :  with  Prac- 
tical Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  Charles  O'Neill, 
Analytical  Chemist ;  Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London  ; 
Member  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester  ; 
Author  of  "  Chemistry  of  Calico  Printing  and  Dyeing."  To  which 
is  added  An  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and  their  Application  to 


0 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


19 


Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  as 
shown  at  the  Exposition  of  1S67,  from  the  Reports  of  the  Interna, 
tional  Jury,  etc.    In  one  volume  8vo.,  491  pages     .       .    $6  00 

QSBORK.— THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL : 

Theoretical  and  Practical :  In  all  its  Branches  ;  With  Special  Re- 
ference to  American  Materials  and  Processes.  By  II.  S.  Osborn, 
LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College, 
Easton,  Pa.  Illustrated  by  230  Engravings  on  Wood,  and  6 
Folding  Plates.    8vo.,  972  pages  $10  00 

QSBORN.— AMERICAN  MINES  AND  MINING  : 

^    Theoretically  and  Practically  Considered.    By  Prof.  H.  S.  Os- 
BORX,  Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings.  8vo.  {In  preparation.) 

pAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION : 

Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the 
Arts  of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  and  Glass  Staining,  with 
numerous  useful  and  valuable  Receipts;  Tests  for  the  Detection 
of  Adulterations  in  Oils  and  Colors,  and  a  statement  of  the  Dis- 
eases and  Accidents  to  which  Painters,  Gilders,  and  Varnishers 
are  particularly  liable,  with  the  simplest  methods  of  Prevention 
and  Remedy.  With  Directions  for  Graining,  Marbling,  Sign  Writ- 
ing, and  Gilding  on  Glass.  To  which  are  added  Complete  Instruc- 
tions FOR  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing.  12mo.,  cloth,  $1  50 

pALLETT.— THE  MILLER'S,  MILLWRIGHT'S,  AND  ENGI- 
^    NEER'S  GUIDE.' 

By  Henry  Pallett.    Illustrated.    In  one  vol.  12mo.     .    $3  00 

pERKINS.— GAS  AND  VENTILATION. 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scien- 
tific Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  illustrated 
Diagrams.    By  E.  E.  Perkins.    12mo.,  cloth  .       .       .    $1  25 

pERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  NEW  GUIDE  TO  THE  SHEET-IRON 
AND  BOILER  PLATE  ROLLER: 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and 
Piles  to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the 
Sizes  of  Bars  to  Produce  Sheet-iron  ,•  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar 
Gauge  in  Decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on 
the  Bar  or  Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch ;  the 
Weight  per  sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet- 
iron  of  various  dimensions  to  weigh  112  lbs.  per  bundle  ;  and  the 
conversion  of  Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight 
into  Short.  Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  IL  Perkins  and  J.  G- 
Stowe  $2  5P 


20 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


pHILLIPS  AND  DAKLINGTON.— RECOEDS  OF  MINING  AND 
METALLUEGY : 

Or,  Facts  and  Memoranda  for  the  use  of  the  Mine  Agent  and 
Smelter.  By  J.  Arthur  Phillips,  Mining  Engineer,  Graduate  of 
the  Imperial  School  of  Mines,  France,  etc.,  and  John  Darlington. 
Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings.  In  one  vol.  12mo.  .  $2  00 
pEADAL,  MALEPEYEE,  AND  DUSSAUCE.  — A  COMPLETE 
TEEATISE  ON  PEEFUMEEY: 

Containing  notices  of  the  Raw  Material  used  in  the  Ait,  and  the 
Best  Formulae.  According  to  the  most  approved  Methods  followed 
in  France,  England,  and  the  United  States.  By  M.  P.  Pradal, 
Perfumer-Chemist,  and  M.  F.  Malepeyre.  Translated  from  the 
French,  with  extensive  additions,  by  Prof.  H.  DussAXJCE.  8vo.  $10 

pEOTEAUX.— PEACTICAL  GUIDE  FOE  THE  MANUFACTUEE 
^    OF  PAPEE  AND  BOAEDS. 

By  A.  Proteaux,  Civil  Engineer,  and  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Arts  and  Manufactures,  Director  of  Thiers's  Paper  Mill,  'Puy-de- 
Dome.  With  additions,  by  L.  S.  Le  Normand.  Translated  from 
the  French,  with  Notes,  by  Horatio  Paine,  A.  B.,  M.  D.  To 
which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Wood 
in  the  United  States,  by  Henry  T.  Brown,  of  the  "American 
Artisan."  Illustrated  by  six  plates,  containing  Drawings  of  Raw 
Materials,  Machinery,  Plans  of  Paper-Mills,  etc.  etc.   8vo.  $5  00 

pEGNATILT.— ELEMENTS  OF  CHEMISTEY. 

By  M.  V.  Regnault.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  For- 
rest Benton,  M.  B.,  and  edited,  with  notes,  by  James  C.  Booth, 
Melter  and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  Wm.  L.  Faber,  Metallurgist 
and  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood  engravings. 
Comprising  nearly  1500  pages.    In  two  vols.  8vo.,  cloth    $10  00 

DEID.— A  PEACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF 

^  POETLAND  CEMENT: 

By  Henry  Reib,  C.  E.  To  which  is  added  a  Translation  of  M. 
A.  Lipowitz's  Work,  describing  anew  method  adopted  in  Germany 
of  Manufacturing  that  Cement.  By  W.  F.  Reid.  Illustrated  by 
plates  and  wood  engravings.    8vo.  .       .       ,       .       .    $7  00 

-DIFFAXTLT,  VEEGNAUD,   AND  TOUSSAINT.— A  PEACTICAL 

^  TEEATISE   ON  THE  MANUFAOTUEE  OF   COLOBS  FOE 
PAINTING :  . 

Containing  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Prooesse.s  the  N^ewest  and 
in  most  General  Use.  By  MM.  Riffault,  Vergnaud,  andTous- 
SAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M.  F.  Malepeyre  and  Dr.  Eirin 
WiNCKLER.  Illustrated  by  Engravings.  In  one  vol.  8vo.  {Lt 
f  reparation 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


21 


IDIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  AND  TOUSSAINT.— A  PRACTICAL 
^  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  VARNISHES : 

By  MM.  RiFFAULT,  Vergnaud,  and  Toussaixt.  Revised  and 
Edited  by  M.  F.  Malepeyre  and  Dr.  Emil  Winckler.  Illus- 
trated.   In  one  vol.  8vo.    (Li  preparation.) 

OHUNK.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  RAILWAY  CURVES 
AND  LOCfl.TION,  FOR  YOUNG  ENGINEERS. 

By  Wm.  F.  Shtjnk,  Civil  Engineer.    12mo.,  tucks   .       .    $2  00 

OMEATON.— BUILDER'S  POCKET  COMPANION: 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architec. 
ture  ;  with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject. By  A.  C.  Smeaton,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  In  one  volume, 
12mo  $1  60 

nMITH.— THE  DYER'S  INSTRUCTOR: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cot- 
ton, Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woollen  Goods  :  containing  nearly 
800  Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Pad- 
ding;  and  the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs, 
and  the  various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of 
such  work.    By  David  Smith,  Pattern  Dyer,  12mo.,  cloth 

$3  00 

OMITH.— THE  PRACTICAL  DYER'S  GUIDE: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Dyeing  of  Shot  Cobourgs, 
Silk  Striped  Orleans,  Colored  Orleans  from  Black  Warps,  ditto 
from  White  Warps,  Colored  Cobourgs  from  White  Warps,  Merinos, 
Yarns,  Woollen  Cloths,  etc.  Containing  nearly  300  Receipts,  to 
most  of  which  a  Dyed  Pattern  is  annexed.  Also,  a  Treatise  on 
the  Art  of  Padding.    By  David  Smith.    In  one  vol.  Svo.  $25  00 


S 


HAW.— CIVIL  ARCHITECTURE : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building, 
containing  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  Edward 
Shaw,  Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture, &c.  By  Thomas  W.  Silloway  and  George  M.  Hard- 
ing ,  Architects.  The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely 
engraved  on  copper.    Eleventh  Edition.    4to.    Cloth.       $10  00 

LOAN.— AMERICAN  HOUSES: 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  Engravings,  with  Descriptive  References.  By  Samuel 
Sloan,  Architect,  author  of  the  "  Model  Architect,"  etc.  etc.  Svo. 

$2  50 


nCHINZ.— RESEARCHES  ON  THE  ACTION  OF  THE  BLAST- 
*^  FURNACE. 

By  Chas,  Schinz,    Seven  plates.    12mo.        .       .       .    $4  25 


22      .         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


gMITH.— PARKS  AND  PLEASURE  GROUNDS  : 

Or,  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks, 
and  Gardens.  By  Charles  H.  J.  Smith,  Landscape  Gardener 
and  Garden  Architect,  etc.  etc.    12mo  $2  25 

qiOKES.— CABINET-MAKER'S  AND  UPHOLSTERER'S  COMPA- 
^  NION: 

Comprising  the  Rudiments  and  Principles  of  Cabinet-making  and 
'  Upholstery,  with  Familiar  Instructions,  Illustrated  by  Examples 
for  attaining  a  Proficiency  in  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable 
to  Cabinet-work  ;  The  Processes  of  Veneering,  Inlaying,  and 
Buhl-work  ;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Staining  Wood,  Bone,  Tortoise 
Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lackering,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing; 
to  make  French  Polish  ;  to  prepare  the  Best  Glues,  Cements,  and 
Compositions,  and  a  number  of  Receipts,  particularly  for  workmen 
generally.    By  J.  Stokes.  In  one  vol.  12mo.    With  illustrations 

$1  25 

^TRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS. 

Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Test- 
ing Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By 
Officers  of  the  Ordnance  Department  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority 
of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  In 
1  vol.  quarto   .  $10  00 

nULLIVAN.— PROTECTION  TO  NATIVE  INDUSTRY. 

By  Sir  Edward  Sullivan,  Baronet.    (1870.)    8vo.       .    $1  50 

ABLES  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  ROUND,  SQUARE,  AND 
FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC. 

By  Measurement.    Cloth  63 

rPAYLOR.— STATISTICS  OF  COAL: 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures  ;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commer- 
cial Distribution  and  amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on 
the  American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron 
Manufacture.  By  R.  C.  Taylor.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S. 
S.  Haldeman.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engrav- 
ings.   8vo.,  cloth  $6  00 

rpEMPLETON.— THE  PRACTICAL  EXAMINATOR  ON  STEAM 
AND  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  : 

AVith  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  for  the  Use  of  Engi- 
neers, Students,  and  others.  By  Wm.  Templeton,  Engineer  12mo. 

$1  25 


T 


HENRY  CAPtEY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


23 


irHOMAS.— THE  MODERN  PRACTICE  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


By  R.  W.  Thomas,  F.  C.  S.  8vo.,  cloth  .  ...  75 
'■PHOMSON.— FREIGHT  CHARGES  CALCULATOR. 

By  Andrew  Thomson,  Freight  Agent     .       .       .       .    $1  25 
JiURNING :  SPECIMENS  OF  FANCY  TURNING  EXECUTED  OK 
THE  HAND  OR  FOOT  LATHE : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cut- 
ting Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Pho- 
tographs.   4to  $3  00 

SpURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric 
Turning;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instru- 
ments ;  and  Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill, 
Vertical  Cutter,  and  Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instruc- 
tions for  working  them.    A  new  edition  in  1  vol.  12mo.       $1  50 

TTRBIN  — BRULL.  — A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  PUDDLING 
^   IRON  AND  STEEL. 

By  Ed.  Urbin,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.  A  Prize 
Essay  read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  tlie 
School  of  Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1S05-6. 
To  Avhich  is  added  a  Comparison  of  the  Resistixg  Properties 
OF  Iron  AND  Steel.  By  A.  Brull.  Translated  from  the  French 
by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.    In  one  volume,  8vo. 


•OGDES.— THE  ARCHITECT'S  AND  BUILDER'S  POCKET  COM- 
PANION AND  PRICE  BOOK. 

By  F.  W,  VoGDES,  Architect.  Illustrated.   Full  bound  in  pocket- 


rARN.— THE  SHEET  METAL  WORKER'S  INSTRUCTOR,  FOR 
ZINC,  SHEET-IRON,  COPPER  AND  TIN  PLATE  WORK- 
ERS, &c. 

By  Reuben  Henry  "Warn,  Practlcnl  Tin  Plate  Worker.  I'lus- 
trated  by  32  plates  and  37  wood  engravings.    8vo.   .        .    $3  CO 

ATSON.— A  MANUAL  OF  THE  HAND-LATHE. 

By  Egbert  P.  Watson,  Late  of  the  "  Scientific  American,"  Au- 
thor of  "Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and  Engi- 
neers,"   In  one  volume,  12mo.        .       .       .       .       .    $1  60 


$1  00 


book  form. 

In  book  form,  ISmo.,  muslin 


$2  00 
1  50 


24 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


WATSON.— THE  MODEBN  PRACTICE  OF  AMERICAN  MA- 
CHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Us3  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow  Work  Generally, 
with  the  most  Economical  Speed  of  the  same,  the  Results  verified 
by  Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vice,  and  on  the  Floor. 
Together  with  Workshop  management,  Economy  of  Manufacture, 
the  Steam-Engine,  Boilers,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.  etc.  By  Egbeet 
P.  Watson,  late  of  the  "Scientific  American."    Illustrated  by 

eighty-six  engravings.    12mo.  $2  60 

WATSON.— THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  THE  ART  OF 
WEAVING  BY  HAND  AND  POWER : 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  those  connected  with 
the  Trade.  By  John  Watson,  Manufixcturer  and  Practical  Machine 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  drawings  of  the  best  Power-Looms. 
8vo.  $10  00 

WEATHERLY.— TREATISE  ON  .THE  ART  OF  BOILING  SU- 
GAR,  CRYSTALLIZING,  LOZENGE-MAKING,  COMFITS, 
GUM  GOODS, 

And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  &c.  In  which  are  ex- 
plained, in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods 
of  Manufacturing  every  description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar 
Goods,  as  sold  by  Confectioners  and  others       .       .       .    $2  00 

ILL.— TABLES  FOR  QUALITATIVE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

By  Prof.  Heinrich  Will,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Seventh  edi- 
tion. Translated  by  Charles  E.  IIimes,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of 
Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.    .       .    $1  25 


w 


WILLIAMS.— ON  HEAT  AND  STEAM : 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Expan- 
sion. By  Charles  Wye  Williams,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated.  8vo. 

$3  50 

WORSSAM.— ON  MECHANICAL  SAWS: 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1867.  By 
S.  W.  WoRSSAM,  Jr.    Illustrated  by  18  large  folding  plates.  8vo. 

$5  00 


W 


OHLER.— A  HAND-BOOK  OF  MINERAL  ANALYSIS. 

By  F.  WoHLER.  Edited  by  H.  B.  Nason,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Rensselaer  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y.  With  numerous  Illustrations. 
12mo  $3  00 


